with great manufacturing establishments in modern times; thus laws have been enacted to limit the hours of labour-to forbid children being employed-to prevent the ill-treatment of young persons—and to secure the health and comfort of the workpeople in general. But these half measures are totally inadequate to meet the evils to be attacked and destroyed; above all, the evils of excessive competition must be removed, or the state of society will continue to get worse and worse.

It will be objected that it is impossible for the state to manage or control industrial establishments, and yet its ability to manage the business of carriers by railroads and canals, on an enormous scale, is hardly disputed. Some of the American States own the canals within their borders, and manage them for the benefit of the public. Some kingdoms have carried on the business of importing and selling tobacco and other articles for the public profit, to the exclusion of private individuals. The government might manage all the railroads in the kingdom, fixing the rate of wages of the persons employed in every department, as well as the charges for conveying passengers and luggage. In a word, the government can do whatever can be performed by large companies, and can secure the welfare of the people in its employ. If the government can manage the business of letter-carrying, and the business of carrying passengers and luggage, there is nothing to hinder it from managing all the cotton, silk, and woollen manufactories throughout the country.

It will be objected that this assumption of the monopoly of a particular manufacture by the state would be as injurious in its consequences as the monopolies formerly granted by the state to be enjoyed by particular companies or individuals, e. g. the exclusive right vested in one person to manufacture hats, which actually existed at one time in this country. We reply, that there is no analogy whatever between these different monopolies: the one is established for the benefit of the working population to keep up the rate of wages and secure the proper management of great manufactories, the other was granted for the benefit of a few capitalists or other favoured individuals. When the state has absolute control over a manufactory, it can make proper provision for securing the health, safety, and comfort of the labourers in its employment, for the exclusion of women and children, for the prevention of excessive labour, for the establishment of proper boarding-houses, also reading-rooms, and places of recreation and amusement. Provision can also be made for the support of the aged and sick, and the education of the young. Wages can be maintained at a remunerating price.

V.

As to the efforts made in ancient times to regulate the rate of wages of agricultural and other labourers by acts of parliament, without regard to the capacity of the persons employed, we need only observe that the

alleged failure of those enactments by no means tends to show the impolicy of establishing general rules to regulate the rate of wages in public establishments belonging to the state, when the labourers are selected and classified, as they would be by any great company.

It will probably be objected that there would not be employmeut enough in the state factories for the numbers seeking admission. That may be true: but there would be more employment than is furnished under the present system, and more regularity in that employment, with ample provision for periods of depression. There would be more employment, because the workpeople would not work so hard as they do now, and, as presently shown, the quantity of work to be done would be increased, and consequently the number of hands required would be much larger than at present.

It will be said that our exports of manufactured goods must cease, if we raise the cost of the manufacture, which cannot be avoided, if we adopt the plan just proposed We believe, on the contrary, that our exports would increase. The truth is, that whatever articles we may import from abroad must be paid for with the produce of our industry; and the only effect of raising the cost of manufacturing articles for exportation will be a rise in the price of the goods imported to pay for them. The ability of the manufacturing population to consume imported articles will, notwithstanding the increased price, be augmented under the system which raises wages. The agricultural and other classes will be benefited by the prosperity of the manufacturing districts, and thereby, in like manner, enabled to meet such advanced prices. The consumption of domestic as well as imported articles will be greater than before amongst all classes of the population, whether trading, agricultural, or manufacturing; and it follows that the exports will be increased, instead of diminished, in consequence even of partial measures for improving the condition of that portion of the population employed in manufactories.

With respect to agricultural employment, M. Louis Blanc proposes that collateral successions to landed property shall be abolished, and such property declared public. Every commune, says he, would thus acquire a domain, which should be cultivated by associations established by the state, on the same principle as the factory associations already referred to.

The state can, without difficulty, manage the cultivation of farms as well as great landowners in England and Ireland now manage them. These great landowners make leases of their farms, prescribing the course of culture. The state could, being aided by the advice of surveyors, also prescribe the course of culture; besides making proper provisions for the employment of a sufficient number of hands, at adequate wages, and also other provisions for the suitable board and lodging of these labourers and their families.

M. Louis Blanc also suggests that much can be done independently of state interference. He proposes associations of workmen belonging to different trades, to appoint a council of administration; this council to make arrangements for obtaining employment, and regulating labour and wages upon equitable principles; providing a fund for the sick, the unemployed, the widow, and the fatherless. We doubt the practicability of this project under existing circumstances.

From this short sketch, it will be observed that the propositions of M. Louis Blanc have been greatly misunderstood and misrepresented.

VI.

The evils of excessive competition, daily augmented by the discovery of new machines superseding labour, will soon cause the present theories of political economists to be scattered to the winds. Employment is becoming more and more scarce in these islands, prostitution and crime more and more abundant, and Great Britain and Ireland are at this moment presenting the astounding spectacle of a vast increase of human misery; concurrent with an unbounded increase of the means of providing food and raiment.

When democracy shall have been established, and the second social revolution consummated, the whole mass of the people will be enlightened, and comparatively moral and well-conditioned. At this period, many voluntary associations will have been formed, in which all the members will live on a footing of perfect equality, holding the property of the association and the proceeds of their united industry in common. The success of these associations will show the practicability and desirableness of an entirely new system of society.

VII.

THE FINAL SOCIAL REVOLUTION.-The last grand change, for which all the preceding will have been the mere preparations, is the general establishment of industrial associations, based upon the co-operation principle, instead of that of competition. Society will be formed of a congeries of such associations, with a central government, for the general control of all of them, and the conduct of foreign relations. All the male population will bear arms, and be skilled in their use, so as to be able to resist invasion from surrounding kingdoms and states remaining in a state of semi-civilisation.

The central government will be composed of a legislative body and executive, elected periodically by the whole mass of the people, male and female. Each association will elect all the officers required for its local government. Articles manufactured by one association will be exchanged for those manufactured by others, the value being regulated by the amount of labour expended on each article, and according to

certain rules agreed upon by the various associations, and embodied in the shape of a law. There will be no occasion for lawyers and judges, as there will be no disputes about private property; and as to those persons who may break the peace, or commit improper acts, they will be dealt with as persons partially or wholly bereft of their senses, and in their treatment the great object will be their reformation and restoration to society.

The elected officers of the associations will regulate all the affairs of the community. The members of the association will live together in large and convenient dwellings, and will take their meals together.

As to the marital relation, no absolute right in one human being to the person of another will be recognised, but the husband and wife will be authorized to separate whenever incompatibility of temper, or any other circumstance, may in the estimation of the community, and according to its laws, render a dissolution of the contract desirable. Promiscuous intercourse will be of far less frequent occurrence than it is under the present system of society; indeed there is every reason to believe that amongst such a refined and intellectual people as the community system will bring into existence, there will be but few breaches of modesty or morals. Sound precept, and the force of good example amongst such a people will be efficacious; and it is to be especially borne in mind that there will be no poor to be tempted, no rich and high-born to tempt, and there will be no intoxicating drinks.

If it be objected that marriages would, under such circumstances, be too frequently dissolved, we answer that we do not believe such would be the case. All marriages will be under such a system of society, entered into from proper motives, unmixed with sordid and mercenary objects. It will be the usage to abide by the contract of marriage. The society, looking to the preservation of its comfort and happiness, will inculcate this as a duty-the youth will be educated to regard this rule as of vital importance; and we have no doubt that in such a highly

* By the law of Ohio, divorces may be granted for the following causes :

"1. Where either of the parties had a former wife or husband living at the time of solemnising the second marriage.

"2. When either of the parties shall have been wilfully absent from the other three years.

"3. Adultery.

"4. Impotency.

5. Extreme cruelty.

"6. Fraudulent contract.

"7. Gross neglect of duty.

"8. Habitual drunkenness for three years."

9. Where either party is convicted of certain grave offences, provided the application for divorce is made during the imprisonment.

Similar laws exist in the other States. After the decree of divorce, both parties may marry again. The decree is easily obtained by poor as well as rich, the expenses being very trifling, and the proceedings prompt and simple. In a very refined state of society, when the children of the divorced parties are under the care and superintendence of the association, divorces may with great propriety be permitted for causes which, under the existing sytem of society, could not with due regard to public policy be held sufficient.

polished community all its rules will be more implicitly followed than the laws, usages, customs, or fashions of the old system of society.

VIII.

It is objected that men and women will not exert themselves except for the sake of amusement, or for the purpose of acquiring the means of enjoyment; that, consequently, the members of the association will not labour, seeing that no personal advantage is to be derived from it. It is argued that each man will desire to reap the fruits of the labour of the other members of the association, without working himself.

To this we reply that the examples of the various associations before referred to, and which have been in existence for the last twenty years, is sufficient to refute this theory. But let us for the sake of the argument, disregard the experiments already tried, and examine the question irrespective of that experience. All the members of the association must know that their individual and collective welfare depends on their industry. Hence rules for the regulation of that industry will be formed by the society. It will not be left for each individual to work or not, as he pleases, nor to begin and leave off when he likes. Each member of the community will have his allotted task, and that will be an easy and a pleasant one, according to his or her age, strength, taste, and capacity: the employment will be varied from time to time so as to avoid monotony. These restraints are nothing as compared with those which ninetenths of the human race now endure; the professional man, the tradesman, the artisan, and labourer, are all under a variety of restraints, and compelled to labour more than would be necessary in association, besides having to submit to insults and indignities. In association, there will be no servants, no persons situated like the common soldiers and sailors of the present day, and all would have more leisure, more social enjoyments, more amusements, and more true liberty than can possibly be had under the competitive system.

Very little labour, with the aid of skill and improved machinery, would suffice to furnish the community with all the comforts and luxuries of life. Even under the present system, every day adds to the facility of raising food, and manufacturing articles of use and ornament; but, under the community system, the whole mass of the people being intelligent, with abundant leisure to study, with ample means to try experiments. and no motives for the concealment of a discovery, there will be a hundred inventions and improvements where there is one now, and mankind will be elevated to a height of civilisation and refinement beyond all existing anticipations. The finest palaces of the present age will be insignificant in comparison with the mansions of the associations. Means will be discovered for rendering all occupations inoffensive, and no labour will be deemed mean and servile; all must labour on a footing of perfect