certain conditions, in soil and air destitute of ammonia and its compounds. 2. That urea in solution is capable of being taken unchanged into the organisms of plants. 3. That urca need not be converted into ammonia before its nitrogen becomes available for the purposes of vegetation. 4. That the fertilizing effects of urea are not at all inferior to those of the salts of ammonia. 5. That there exists no necessity for allowing drainings or other fertilising substances containing urea to ferment; but that, on the contrary, greater benefits must be derived from their application in the recent or unfermented condition. On a Method of Refining Sugar. By Professor DAUBENY, M.D., F.R.S. Dr. Daubeny gave an account of a new method of refining sugar, conducted at Plymouth by Mr. Oxland, and known by his name. It consists in the adoption of the superphosphate of alumina in conjunction with animal charcoal, as a substitute for the albumen usually employed for that purpose. In both cases the object is to separate and carry down the various impurities, which colour and adulterate the pure saccharine principle, present in the syrup expressed from the cane or other vegetable which supplies it. As, however, bullocks' blood is the material usually procured for the purposes of supplying the albumen, a portion of uncoagulated animal matter, together with certain salts, is left in the juice in the ordinary process of refining, which impairs its purity, and promotes its fermentation-thus occasioning a certain loss of saccharine matter to result. Nothing of the kind happens when the superphosphate is substituted, and so much more perfect a purification of the feculent matters, under such circumstances, takes place, that several varieties of native sugar, which, from being very highly charged with feculent matters, would be rejected in the ordinary process of refining, are readily purified by this method. The employment of superphosphate of alumina also gets rid of so much larger a proportion of the impurities present in the sugar, that much less animal charcoal is subsequently required for effecting its complete defecation, than when bullocks' blood has been resorted to. The quantity of superphosphate necessary for effecting the object is, for ordinary sugars, not more than twelve ounces to the ton; whereas, for the same quantity, as much as from one to four gallons of bullocks' blood is found to be required. Dr. Daubeny suggested that this reagent might be advantageously resorted to, not only in the purification of sugar, but also in other processes of the laboratory, when the removal of foreign matters, intimately mixed with the solution of a definite compound, becomes a necessary preliminary to its further examination. On the Conversion of Paper into Parchment. By Professor DAUBENY, M.D., F.R.S. Dr. Daubeny exhibited some specimens of paper that had been converted into parchment. The discovery, he believed, had originated in the experiments made in connexion with the manufacture of gun-cotton, as it was accidentally discovered, when dipping paper into nitric acid, that the same effect was not exercised upon it as upon the cotton, but that it was rendered tough. The alteration visible in the conversion of common paper into parchment after being dipped into weak sulphuric acid, is believed to be attributable to the substitution of an atom of water for an atom of hydrogen. On Hygrometers and Hygrometry, with a description of a New Modification of the Condenser Hygrometer and Hygroscope. By M. DONOVAN, M.R.I.A. Suggestions towards a more Systematic Nomenclature for Organic Bodies. By G. C. FOSTER, B.A., F.C.S. Classification. The classification on which the author proposes to base a systematic nomenclature for organic compounds, is a modification of that employed by Gerhardt in his Traité de Chimie Organique.' It consists in arranging chemical substances in a number of groups or families, the individual members of each of which have analogous relations to each other. The relations existing between the various groups can be most easily explained by comparing corresponding terms of each. For instance, assuming that each group contains a hydrocarbon analogous to olefiant gas, CH4, all these hydrocarbons may be represented by the formula x (CH2), or by the formula x (CH2)-y H2, x and y being whole numbers. The substances represented by the first of these formulæ are called by Gerhardt homologous; they evidently differ in composition by a multiple of CH2. Mr. Foster proposes to call substances isologous, which, like the hydrocarbons represented by the second formula (a being constant, and y variable), possess similar chemical functions, and differ in composition by a multiple of H2. In the following Table, CH2 the formulæ in each vertical column represent homologous substances, those in the same horizontal line represent isologous substances. The relations which exist between the hydrocarbons, also exist between the other corresponding terms of the various groups, and therefore between the groups themselves taken collectively. Each group may therefore be characterized by the homologous and isologous series to which it belongs. In attempting to enumerate the most important members of each group, it will save time to take at once a particular instance-for example, the third group of the first homologous series, namely the propylic or tritylic group. Here we have the three following alcohols : 1. Propylic alcohol, C3 H8 O (monatomic). The replacement of more or less hydrogen in these alcohols by equivalent quantities of oxygen, gives a number of acids; those derived from the first being unibasic, those from the second bibasic, those from the third terbasic. The following are the acids so formed, together with the alcohols from which they are formed : C3H8 O propyl. alc., C3 H6 O2 propion. ac., C3 H4 03 pyruvic ac., C3 H2 04 (unknown),.. unibasic. C3H8 O2 propyl. glyc., C H6 03 (unknown), C3 H4 04 nicotic ac.?, C3 H2 05 me. oxalic ac., bibasic. C3 HS 03 glycerine, C3 H 04 (unknown), C3 H4 O5 (unknown), C3 H2 06 (unknown).. terbasic. The alcohols may be regarded as the leading members of each group. Around each of them and their derived acids, various chlorides, anhydrides, nitrides, and other bodies of which these are typical, are to be placed. Nomenclature. In the nomenclature here proposed, the root of the name of any substance denotes the group to which it belongs, the termination, its place in the group, or its chemical function. The root is, in most cases, formed by the combination of two Greek numerals; the first denoting the homologous, the second the isologous series to which the substance belongs. Thus, allylic alcohol, C3 H6 O, belongs to the second homologous and to the third isologous series, counting from above downwards, and from left to right in the Table of hydrocarbons given above; it therefore belongs to the deutritic group. Similarly, angelic acid, C5 H O2, belongs to the deupentic group, that is, to the second group of the fifth isologous series, or to the fifth group of the second homologous series. The following are the terminations suggested to denote some of the best defined chemical functions: -yl denotes a monatomic radical: Example-Tetrexyl =C H3=phenyl. -ene denotes a diatomic radical: Example-Penteptene=C7 H6=radical of chlorobenzol (Wicke, Ann. Ch. Pharm. cii. 358). -ise denotes a triatomic radical: Example-Tritise=C3 H5-glyceryl. -ylia denotes nitride of -yl: Example-Tetrexylia (or tetrexia)+=C H2 N=nitride of tetrexyl. *Only so much of each numeral is used as is necessary to characterize it distinctly, and for convenience of pronunciation. In the case of bodies of the first homologous series, the names express only the isologous series to which they belong. Thus, the names of the methyl, ethyl, propyl,... compounds are formed from the roots prot-, deut-, trit-, ... instead of from proprot-, prodeut-, protrit-,. †The syllable yl may be omitted when it is followed by an additional termination. -enia denotes nitride of -ene: Example-Deutenia=C2 H5 N-nitride of deutene (acetylamine, Natanson and Cloez). -isia denotes nitride of -ise: Example-Deutisia=C2 H3 N=nitride of deutise= acetonitrile. The vowels a, e, i, &c. before a functional termination denote respectively the replacement of H2 by O, H4 by O2, H6 by O3, &c., as deutyl C2 H3, deutaÿl C2 Í3 O, deutene C2 H4, deuteëne C2 O2. The acids derived from the hydrates of -yl, -ene, and -ise, respectively, by the replacement of H2 by O, are -ic acid, -eric acid, -isic acid: examples, penteptic C7H6O2 benzoic, pentepteric=C7 H6 03-salicylic. The acids derived from the alcohols by the replacement of H4 by O2, or from the last-mentioned acids by the replacement of H2 by O, are respectively, -aïc, -eraïc, -isaïc examples, nonaïc = C9 H16 03 coumaric, noneraïc = C9 H16 O4 = anchoïc, tetreptisaïc C7 H605=gallic. The acids formed by the replacement of H by O3, are -eïc, -ereïc, -iseïc : examples, tritocteic=C8 H8 O4=orsellic, tritereïc=C3 H2O=mesoxalic, deutexiseïc C6H606 aconitic. The names of the unibasic acids therefore terminate in -ic, -aïc, -eïc; those of the bibasic acids in -eric, -eraïc, -ereïc; and those of the terbasic acids in -isic, -isaïc, -iseïc. Chlorine, bromine, and iodine substitution products are denoted by the syllables chlo-*, bro-, io-, prefixed to the names of the hydrogen compound from which they are derived; as chlodeutene C2 H3 Cl, brotetrexia= C HC BrN=bromaniline. Multiplication is in all cases expressed by Latin numerals; as terchlodeutic acid=C2 HCl3 O=(trichloracetic), biprotylia (or biprotia)=C2 H7N dimethylamine. In devising these names, the author has tried to avoid using expedients which are not recommended by being already partially in use amongst chemists. It is evident that the system of nomenclature proposed is very far from complete: it is intended only as a suggestion of the way in which a more complete system might be formed. The author's object has been to propose rules by which intelligible names may be given to new bodies, not to improve on those already attached to known substances. On some Arseniates of Ammonia. By ALPHONSE Gages. After mentioning the arseniates of ammonia already described by Berzelius and Mitscherlich, and noticing the imperfect description given in books about the processes for preparing the salts of ammonia and arsenic acid, and the doubtful character of their constitution, the author described his own experiments, which verified the constitution of the salts mentioned by Berzelius and Mitscherlich: he found, however, that the salt containing three equivalents of ammonia described by the former, contains seven equivalents of hydrated water. He described three new double salts, formed by arseniate of ammonia, in which soda, potash, &c. act as the second bases. He also exhibited some beautifully crystallized compounds of arsenic acid, with morphia and quinine, which may probably be of interest as therapeutical agents. On the Specific Gravity of Chloride of Nitrogen, with some Remarks upon its Action on Alcohol. By ALPHONSE Gages. The author gave determinations which were extremely close to those given many years ago by Sir Humphry Davy. He also mentioned the fact that chloride of nitrogen dissolves in absolute alcohol without decomposition, but if the solution be allowed to stand for a few hours it decomposes. He described an apparatus for introducing the chloride of nitrogen into the alcohol, and mentioned the character of the reaction which took place. Chemical Notes. By J. H. GLADSTONE, Ph.D., F.R.S. 1. On Explosive Potassium.-Dr. Gladstone related how on one occasion a piece of potassium had exploded in his hands with much flame, noise, and violence. On examining the specimen afterwards, he found that it contained hard pieces which consisted of the compound of carbonic oxide and potassium, and were convertible by *Comp. Daubeny, Brit. Assoc, Rept., 1851, p. 124. water into rhodizonate of potash, a substance known to be explosive. The specimen contained no rhodizonate ready formed. 2. On Froth.-Some liquids when shaken with air form a more or less permanent froth. Aqueous solutions of organic bodies are peculiarly disposed to do so. The frothing of beer is due originally in a great measure to the carbonic acid that rises through the liquid, but its persistence is quite independent of that or any other dissolved gas, as was proved by exhausting some beer by an air-pump, and afterwards shaking it. Acetates are much given to making a permanent froth when dissolved in water, whether the solution contain air or not; yet acetic acid itself is not remarkable for this quality, and alcohol or æther forms bubbles when shaken which instantly disappear. The power of producing a persistent froth appears to be a specific quality not depending on the density of the liquid or any other known property. The colour of froth is always lighter than that of the liquid from which it is produced, and in some cases it is totally different. The author showed that this was due to the dichromatism of such liquids; for instance, a thin stratum of cochineal transmits rays which are absorbed by a larger quantity of the substance. In a similar manner the colourless bubble that floats on port wine was explained by a prismatic analysis. On the Decomposition by Heat of certain Ammoniacal Salts. The author showed that the decomposition of phosphate and sulphate of ammonia by a strong heat was not entirely owing to the non-volatility, unless at a very high temperature, of phosphoric and sulphuric acids. In fact these salts are decomposed partially when their solutions are boiled, ammonia being given off, and the remaining liquor becoming acid. In like manner oxalate of ammonia is capable of decomposition, and crystals of the citrate give off the volatile alkali even at the ordinary temperature, acquiring at the same time an acid reaction. It was noticed that the ammonia salts of the monobasic hydrochloric and nitric acids are not decomposable by water, while the compounds of the bibasic, oxalic, and sulphuric acids are liable to partial decomposition, and those of the tribasic, phosphoric, and citric acids are still more easily resolved into free ammonia and acid salts. On the Use of the Prism in detecting Impurities. By J. H. GLADSTONE, Ph.D., F.R.S. This paper described the novel use of the prism in detecting impurities. The author described the methods of examining substances by means of a prism, especially the instructive results obtained with liquids when the ray of light traverses them in a wedge-shaped vessel. He suggested this as a means of detecting coloured impurities when they do exist, and of proving their absence when they are wrongfully suspected. He showed the value of the means in respect to coloured confectionery, tea, and mustard, and remarked on its use in examining wines, liqueurs, pigments used in the fine arts, gems, pharmaceutical preparations, &c. He stated that the prism and hollow wedge were already used as a commercial means of ascertaining the purity of certain substances. On Electrical Currents in the Earth's Surface. By ARCHIBALD H. HAMILTon. In the spring of the present year, the author had occasion to try a series of experiments on a difficult point, namely, the nature of the earth as a conducting body. Having selected six convenient stations, represented in the diagram, he buried different metallic bodies in those marked A, B, C, D, and wooden boxes, filled with water, in which metal plates were to be plunged, at stations No. 1 and No. 2; these stations were connected by wires sufficiently insulated to convey currents of a single cell, without sensible loss in ordinary weather. On the evening of April 20, 1857, about 6:30 P.M., he proceeded to make some observations with a small galvanometer. He first connected a brass plate in box No. 1 with the brasses buried at A and B, and found a strong deflection, arising as it were from zinc plates at A and B. He then took down the galvanometer to C, and connected by its wire the plates buried at C with a zinc plate plunged in No. 2, and observed that, instead of a current flowing from the less oxidable metals (Cu+Sn) into the more oxidable (Zn), there was a strong current flowing from the zinc into the copper and tin plates buried at C. This unlooked-for current, by stopping the source of his motive power (for there was no battery-power to be used in these experiments), forcibly diverted his attention from the original experiments, to the examination of this new and curious phenomenon. He accordingly endeavoured, by enlarging the number of the stations, &c., and especially by using wooden boxes or porous earthen vessels buried in the ground and open at the top, and plates of the same metal, numbered for identification, and interchanged as frequently as possible, to obtain some rudiments of laws for these curious currents. Owing to the difficulties of the experiments, and the incompleteness of the apparatus, the following results are presented merely as agreeing with the general tenor of the observations, and affording a basis for laws to be deduced from more extended and accurate experiments. 1. There will be, almost always, a current flowing along an insulated wire, joining two plates of the same metal, similarly buried in the surface of the earth. 2. The direction and strength of this current depend upon the time of the day, the season, the year, &c., and seem to be functions of the azimuth of the straight line joining the centres of the buried plates. 3. The strength of the current seems also to be a function of the length of this straight line. 4. There will generally be at least one neutral line in which buried plates will be inactive; this line the author thinks the magnetic meridian of the place will be found to be. 5. As to the sign of the current along the wire, the author is quite at a loss to account for its very curious changes from one time to another; nor, knowing its sign at any one moment in the wire, can he say what is most likely to be its sign at that moment in the earth, not having been able to complete a series of chemical experiments begun for that purpose. Dunsink Garden. Scale. Slope to Southward about 4°. |