Finally, so far from the Abors living only in scattered dwellings, they have considerable villages, each of which has a town hall where the unmarried men pass the night. These facts seem to me to furnish sufficient evidence of the existence of "cohesion resulting from the ties of recognised kinship," and if, as Mr. Gomme asserts, a more elaborate description of the Cyclopes than that given by Homer is to be obtained from what is known of the Abors, the former must have been somewhat libelled by the Greek poet.

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So much for the modern specimen of the primitive horde referred to by Mr. Gomme, who considers, however, that the Abors are but a type of the general aboriginal Indian group." In support of this opinion he quotes a passage from Sir Alfred Lyall's "Asiatic Studies," which refers to the Bheels as a "simple aboriginal horde." This passage, Mr. Gomme thinks, is a remarkable confirmation of his own conclusions. There are, however, facts connected with the Bheels and other aboriginal Indian peoples which forbid us to regard them as reproducing the characteristics of a "primitive human horde." Notwithstanding their apparent. lawlessness and their old predatory habits, the Bheels exhibit 'great attachment for home and family, kindness towards women, respect for their elders, and an unsophisticated love for truth (Rowney, p. 37). Their simplicity of character is remarkable, and when confided in, they are the most trusty of servants. Moreover, the Bheels were not always the "outlaws" their present name would lead us to believe. Their former pre-eminence is denoted by the fact that on the crowning of a Rajpoot prince a Bheel marks his forehead with drops of blood drawn from his thumb and his great toe, and thus anoints him as native, and transmits to him the right to possess the country (Reclus, "Nouv. Geog. Univ.," Vol. VIII, p. 282).

Mr. Gomme supposes that the primitive hordes of hunters and fishers were uninfluenced by the ties of kinship, and that later on migrating hordes were enabled successfully to contend with them, owing to their being organised on the basis of kin. An indication that "the ties of kinship had already influenced human thought" is found in the stated fact that "now, for the first time, the dead. are carefully buried." If, however, burial of the dead is evidence of the recognition of kinship, this must be allowed to the Bheels, who bury their females and children, although the males are burnt along with their arms and cooking utensils. Funeral rites have, in reality, no bearing on the question of kinship, and both burial and burning are in use among the peoples of India.

I might criticise Mr. Gomme's views as to the effect of migrations on "the development of tribal society based upon polyandry and kinship through females" (p. 131). I will do so, however, only by pointing out that polyandry is not, as a rule, due to a scarcity of women. This could be established by many facts. The cause of polyandry is well expressed by M. Reclus (op. cit., p. 204), when he says of the Dapla, who are allied to the Abors, that "like their neighbours of Tibet, they admit all forms of

marriage; both polyandry, usual among the poor, and polygyny practised ordinarily by the rich." I would mention, also, that true polyandry is associated with kinship through males, and not with female kinship.

In conclusion, it appears to me that Mr. Gomme has signally failed in his attempt to establish the existence of Dr. McLennan's primitive group or horde. His arguments tend rather to support the view which he condemns, that the "family" formed the basis of the earliest human groups, which consisted of a number of individuals, or of family units, bound together by the ties of kinship. C. STANILAND WAKE.

Welton,

18th November, 1887.

SKETCH of ANIWA GRAMMAR.
By SIDNEY H. RAY,

ANIWA is a low coral island in the south of the New Hebrides group. It lies 10 miles north-east of Tanna, and 50 miles north of Aneiteum, in South latitude 19° 15', and East longitude 169° 40′. The population is rapidly decreasing, and in 1874 was only 194.

Though the natives of Aniwa are in general appearance and customs almost identical with the Melanesian tribes near them, their language is akin to the dialects of Eastern Polynesia, and more especially resembles the Tongan and Samoan. A closely allied language is spoken on the island of Fotuna, about 30 miles to the east of Aniwa. Dr. Steel in his work on the New Hebrides,' states that "the natives of the two islands can understand each other. Many of the natives of Aniwa are bilingual, as the island is so near Tanna on the one side and Eromanga on the other." A similar dialect is also found in the district of Mele, in Faté or Sandwich Island, about 100 miles to the north.

This sketch is drawn up from translations of the Gospel of St. John, and some of the Epistles,2 made by the Rev. J. G. Paton, of the New South Wales Presbyterian Church, who has resided on the island since 1866.

I.-Alphabet.

1. Vowels, a, e, i, o, u, sounded as in Italian.

2. Diphthongs, ou, ow, au, as in loud; ei, ai, y, as in my; oi, oy, as in boy.

3. Consonants, k, c, g; t, tsh, j; p, f, v, w; s; r, l, m, n, mn. The consonants are sounded as in English, with the exception of of c and g, which have the same sound as in Aneiteum, and are pronounced as g in go; and ng in sing.

1 "The New Hebrides," by Robert Steel, D.D., London, 1880.

2 Ta fasao erefia ma tapu a hepe neisereace Mathius, Markus, Ioanes. I ta fasao Aniwa, Neu Hebritis. Fakowia Melburni Vektoria, 1877-1882.

i.

4. The t of Eastern Polynesia is often represented by tsh, especially before . The is little used, its place being taken by r.

II.-Article.

1. The definite article is ta, in the plural a; ta fare, the house; a fare, the houses; ta fatu, the stone; a fatu, stones. Ta is sometimes shortened to tu, and a to u, and ta is disguised in the form to before u; tumtagi, the wind (Samoan matagi); umrama, months (Samoan, malama); towa, the rain; (Samoan ua). Ta also appears as te and ti; teriki, the chief; (Samoan ali'i); tiafi, the fire; (Samoan afi).

2. Many nouns commence with the syllable no, which appears to be a kind of article. It is probably due to the influence of neighbouring Melanesian dialects, where na is the common demonstrative article. No is used with ta and a; ta nontariki, the son; (Samoan atali'i); a nontariki, sons; nontariga, the ear; anontariga, ears (Samoan taliga).

3. The numeral tasi, one, is used as an indefinite article: tasi agelo, an angel.

III.-Nouns.

1. In the Melanesian languages nouns may be divided into two classes. The first class takes a suffixed possessive pronoun, and the second expresses possession by the use of another word. Aniwa differs from other Polynesian dialects in having a few words of the first class. These denote relationship and parts of the body, and also include the noun tsha, a thing belonging; and the noun-preposition nia. Examples are: tamanome, our father; arotowa, your hearts; tshaku, my thing; niau, of me; avaiore, their feet.

2. Number is indicated by the numerals or articles; ta nontariki, the son; ruanteriki, two sons; anontariki, sons.

3. The nominative precedes, the accusative follows the verb; teriki nokomy, the chief is coming; tamanowa nibisa, your father rejoiced; akoi nikowna avou, thou sentest me; acime keiro tamari, we know the truth.

4. A few nouns have a prefix foi; e.g, foimata, eyes; foirakou, tree. This is probably the Tongan foi, as in foiufi, a yam; foimanu, a bird's egg, and signifies a mass or ball.

IV.-Pronouns.

1. Personal.

Singular. 1. avou [avau]; 2. akoi [akoe]; 3. aia.

Dual 1. Inclusive acitawa [ketaua]; exclusive acimawa [akimaua]; 2. akorua [korua]; 3. aicrawa [kirua].

Trial 1. Inclusive [apekitatou]; exclusive acimatou; [kitatou]; 2. acoutou [aipe koutou]; 3. acratou [aipe].

Plural 1. Inclusive acitia [akitea]; exclusive acime [akimea] 2. acowa [akoutou]; 3. acre [akirea].

The forms in brackets are those given in a short vocabulary by the Rev. G. Turner.1

The same form is used both before and after the verb. After the preposition ia, the word te is introduced, as in most Polynesian dialects, and we thus have the forms: iatavou, to me; iatakoi, to thee; iateia, to him; iatakai? to whom?

In the plural, te does not appear.

Taha aia neimna iatakoi ? what he did to thee? Avou nakatucua iacowa, I have told to you. 2. Possessive.

A suffixed possessive pronoun appears in use with the word tsha, which is used as a possessive, also with the preposition nia, and in the plural with a few other words.

3. na.

Singular 1. -ku; 2. -u ; sive -omawa; 2. -orua; 3. -rawa.

Dual 1. Inclusive

; exclu

Plural 1. Inclusive -ome; exclusive -oteia; 2. -owa; 3. -ore. Examples: tshaku, my thing; niau, of thee; tshome, our thing; tamanoteia, our father; arotowa, your hearts; avaiore, their feet. 3. Interrogative.

The interrogative pronouns are Akai? who? and Taha? what? Akoi akai? thou (art) who? Akai acowa fatshigeia? whom ye seek? Taha aia neimna iatakoi ? what he did to thee? Taha akoi kofukowia? what thou askest?

4. Demonstrative and Indefinite.

Tenei, this; tera, that; anera, those things; taha, that; tasi, one; sece, another; faru, some, certain; tagatotshi, all men.

Tenei ta fasao komari, this the saying (is) true; Taha nopogi nokomy, that time is coming; Ma anera acime vere, for those (things) we work; Tasi eipesia nohua, ma sece toria fakatapuria nohua, one scatters seed, and another gathers and saves up the fruit; Faru neitucua, some said.

5. No reflexive or reciprocal pronouns appear.

Thou lovest thyself, is translated, akoi acitiafakarafia akoi, thou lovest thee; We love one another, is acitia acitiafakarafia tasi ma sece o acitiotshi, we love one and another of us all. The adverb ana is sometimes suffixed to the pronoun. Ta nontariki aiana setomatua vere, the son himself (lit. he only) is not able to work.

V.-Possessive.

1. The noun tsha, a thing belonging, is used as a possessive With a suffixed pronoun pronoun. it takes the following forms: Singular 1. tshaku; 2. tshou; 3. tshana. Dual 1. Inclusive

3. tsharawa.

Trial 1. Inclusive
Plural 1. Inclusive

tshare.

; exclusive tshamawa; 2. tshorua;

1 "Nineteen Years in Polynesia," by Rev. G. Turner, London, 1861. The pronouns of Mele as given by the same authority are :-Singular 1. avau; 2. akoe; 3. ia. Dual 1. taua, maua; 2. korua; 3. raua. Plural 1. tatou, matou; 2. koutou; 3. latou.

Examples: Tshaku konouri, my flesh; Tshou fare, thy house; Tshana roto, his heart; Tshamawa nuntama, of us two the son; Tshorua nuntama, of you two the son; Tsharawa nokave, of them two the brother; Avai tsharatou, the legs of them three; Tshote nele, of you and me the friend; Tshome norima, of him and me the hands; Tshowa kabisa, your joy; tshare weina, their wine.

2. The noun-preposition nia, is used in a similar way. See IX, 3. 3. Tsha is found in use with nouns. Ta fare tsha Onesiforus, the house the property of Onesiforus; Avere tsha notshino, works belonging to the body.

VI.-Adjectives.

1. A few simple adjectives are found: sore, great; sisi, small; fou, small (Samoan fou); fonu, full; pouri, dark (Samoan pouli); ma, pure (Samoan ma); sape, crippled (Samoan sape).

2. The prefixes of condition, ma and ta, seem to occur in the words mero, withered (Samoan malo, hard); mtacu, afraid (Samoan mata'u); mafa, heavy; mukaligi, cold (Samoan ma'aligi); taruweak, slow; tara, tame (Samoan tala, untied).

3. Reduplicated forms appear: totonu, straight; ouraoura, purple (Samoan ulaula).

4. Adjectives follow their nouns, and are often used with the verbal particles: noreo palo, a voice loud; avere sore, works great; tatane nimace, the man (that was) sick; tagata komate, men (that are) dead.

5. Comparison is made by the word kage following the adjective: ane isa sore kage, a worse thing; (lit. a thing bad great above); Aia sore kage avou, he is greater than I.

6. Demonstrative and indefinite adjectives are: nei, this; ra, that; tasi, one; jimra tasi, not one, no, none; faru, some, iotshi, all; toru, few; nalupai, many.

VII.-Verbs.

1. Any word may be used as a verb, with or without a verbal particle. Amori koma kotenei, worship pure this; avou tufwa, I give; aia kotufwa, he gives. The particles have no distinction of person or number. A distinctly verbal character is given to a word by the particle ko (the Polynesian kua) which appears to have no tense signification but is most frequently used in the present.

2. Mood. A participle is formed by noko: arou nimy nokobaptiso i tavai; I came baptizing with water; avou neicitia ta nokano nokofanifo ia ta ragi, I saw the spirit descending from Heaven; ta mana nokomouri, the father living.

The infinitive is expressed by kei: tomatua keifakairo, able to teach; avou nakamo ane nalupai keitucua, I had things many to say. Imperatives. The simple verb with or without ko shows the imperative: sara ma kowcitia, search and look. Must" and 'ought" are denoted by erefia, good, at the beginning of the

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VOL. XVII.

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