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that such was generally the form adopted for the heads on official signets; a theory supported by the almost exclusive employment of this style in the portraits cut on the precious stones of the Lower Empire. The large front-faced busts of the Provinces in extremely bold, though rudish, Roman work3 of the later period, were also designed for official signets, probably for the use of the Proconsul of the province, since it is difficult to imagine that any private person should have arrogated to himself so important a device for his private seal without risking ruin from the suspicious jealousy of the emperor. Can it be that these heads, whether of Emperors or of Provinces, when given in front face, have been all official signets, but those in profile worn by their subjects through friendship or adulation? The words of Pliny, assigning the entrée at the court of Claudius exclusively to persons privileged by the gift of a gold ring engraved with the emperor's portrait, go to establish the official use of such ornaments under the empire. Gems engraved with the features of an unpopular prince or favourite were doubtless broken to pieces upon his death or downfall; the gem-portraits sharing the fate of their colossal brethren in bronze and marble, "descendunt statuæ restimque sequuntur." I have met with numerous instances of this "execution in effigy" done upon fine gems, as a Commodus-an important intaglio in red Jasper -surrounded by his titles, which has evidently been mutilated purposely; a Caligula, also with a legend; and the Caracalla of the British Museum Collection. In conclusion, to return to certain points slightly alluded to above, though of considerable importance in the distinguishing antique gems from modern imitations. Firstly, it is an invariable rule that

3 Of Africa I have seen two admirable examples, and both apparently from the same hand.

4 When Clodius Macer revolted against Nero he struck denarii at Carthage with the head of Africa.

all truly antique designs are marked by their extreme simplicity. Rarely does the composition include more than two figures, or, if others are introduced, they are treated as mere accessories, and only indicated by an outline. To this branch of art Horace's maxim can be strictly applied with but slight alteration

"Nec quarta loqui persona laboret."

Except in the archaic works of the Greeks and GrecoItalians, who, as we have seen, preferred the representations of violent action and muscular exertions, Repose is the characteristic of the productions of matured Hellenic and Italiote taste. Hence the best works of the most illustrious gemartists are invariably single figures or heads, as will appear on the examination of the list of artists' names and works still extant. As a necessary consequence of this restriction nothing of the nature of a picture with perspective, background, and carefully-finished details of unimportant objects, is ever observed in truly antique gems, whether camei or intagli. Such a treatment of the design stamps the work at once, however ancient its aspect, as a production at best of the Renaissance, the artists of which had not emancipated themselves from the medieval rules of art where all objects in the picture are considered of the same importance and made equally prominent.

Again, there is a marked soberness in the invention of the subjects themselves, or, rather, there is no invention at all in them. They are always literal transcripts of some event in mythology bearing a serious or mystical interpretation; some fact of Heroic history, that is, the religious history of their ancestors; or some business or diversion of everyday life. All these are rendered upon the stone according to certain strict and definite rules, and nothing fanciful is ever allowed to intrude. The whole design is carried out with the rigid

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simplicity of the old tragedians, where one or two actors do and say everything for themselves. Such is the treatment of the events of the Epic Cycle, the favourite themes of the early Grecian and Italiote engravers: with the Roman period art, though in its fullest perfection, becomes altogether prosaic in the choice of its subjects. For gem-engraving, Scalptura," being from the first ancillary to Sculpture, and ever taking its larger productions for its models-the Etruscan his terra-cotta gods and masks, the Greek his bronze or marble statues-the gem-artist never attempted anything in miniature the example of which had not previously been placed before his eyes on a larger scale. Another reason this for the simplicity of their compositions. Neither the one nor the other ever thought of representing events of contemporary or of actual history; an observation which applies invariably to Greek, and, with the rarest exceptions, to Roman works. Even in the latter the event was given in the most simple manner, as in Sylla's signet, "The Surrender of Jugurtha," and precisely as depicted on the reverses of the coinage of the times. Such scenes as the Battle of Issus, the Suicide of Lucretia, Scævola before King Porsenna, the Death of Cæsar, &c., compositions crowded with figures, grouped as in a modern painting, all in violent action, all which we so often see upon the large intagli and camei of the Cinque-Cento and later schools,-nothing whatever of this nature is ever met with on a really antique gem. Neither do we find scenes from Virgil or the "Metamorphoses," the favourite subjects of Italian artists in every department since the revival of art. All truly antique themes are ideas hallowed by long use and reverence, or, so to speak, the "scriptural subjects" of the age that embodied them upon the gem. No antique gems ever represent licentious scenes or attitudes. Even in the undraped figures the sex is slightly indicated

and nothing more. Such designs, on the contrary, are sufficiently plentiful on modern gems, and the great skill and labour which have been lavished by the best hands of the time upon such unworthy subjects prove the favour with which they were received. The number of antique intagli still preserved the greater portion dating from the times of the Roman Empire-is perfectly incredible until a little reflection upon the causes of this abundance supplies a satisfactory explanation. For the space of three centuries they were being produced in countless thousands over the whole civilized world as articles, not merely of ornament, but subservient to the most important uses, authenticating all the transactions of commerce, and serving as a substitute for keys in daily life, when the locksmith's art was yet imperfect. Their material, utterly indestructible, sets at defiance time and the action of the elements; even fire can only discolour it. The stone whose beauty and art charmed the eye of Mithridates, of Cæsar, or of Mæcenas, preserves all its charms unimpaired for the gaze of the man of taste of this day. The barbarian or new convert who melted down the precious ring, bracelet, or vase, for the sake of its metal, cast away as worthless or as idolatrous the Sard or Onyx with which it was inlaid; the priceless work of art fell into the earth and securely slumbered within its protecting bosom until reviving civilization enabled the world again to appreciate its value. Amidst this profusion of ancient treasures the beginner must ever bear in mind one remark—that in the antique world, as in all times, mediocrity was the rule, first class works the exception; hence the vast majority of gems, whether Greek or Roman, though of the greatest historical importance, fall very short of perfection as works of art. They were an article produced by a trade, and, in most cases, with as much rapidity as possible, and made to sell.

Still, even in these, one cannot but admire the effect produced by a few bold and rapid touches of the master's hand. Hence a gem of very perfect work and good execution requires to be scrutinized with the utmost caution before its genuineness be pronounced indisputable, for the best engravers of the last three centuries naturally copied such antique models, and followed them with the utmost fidelity, that being the sole means by which they could obtain an adequate recompense for their labours from the high price commanded by the originals or the copies passing as such. Mediocre gems, being plentiful in the market and to be procured for a trifle, were thus left beyond the danger of forgery.

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Rings cut out of the solid stone were in common use among the Romans of antiquity, just as Carnelian rings are among their female descendants of the present day, who wear them now as a species of amulet to keep off sicknessa notion derived from the medieval idea of the protective virtue of the Sard. These ancient rings were formed out of various substances, but most frequently of Calcedony, a tough and firm material. It is most probable that the first idea of these stone-rings was borrowed by the Romans from

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