find much to approve. It caused a greedy thirst for renown, a carelessness of personal exposure, which were joined, in many instances, to an effeminate and fastidious delicacy. However, a certain moral elevation and dignity of thought, was assuredly introduced; with that bravery, and, above all, respect for engagements, which are essential in civilized and humane society. Eight chapters are devoted to an account of the Crusades; and the reader will do well to pause in considering those events, about which so much absurdity has been lavished. He must view them in their true character, if an impartial and unprejudiced judgment is exerted. They were expeditions, set on foot by the madness of exterminating bigotry and vile persecution, and they introduced into Europe the most pernicious and deadly errors. Was it for this that Godfrey of Bouillon murdered his thousands, and Richard of England his tens of thousands? It has been said, that civilization was promoted; we assert that it was not. True, they might have nourished an acquaintance, intimate and friendly, with the polished and refined communities of the East, but no, they were too busy in the madness of ruthless war, to bestow a serious gaze on the proud civilization, which so eminently characterized that refined people. Europe had no occasion for those expeditions; they related, in no respect, to their own fraternity of nations; they bore, in no degree, on their present or future well-being. Our author has given a spirited account of this stirring period, and introduced at the close some sensible reflections. A passage might be selected from this portion of the work, as a good specimen of the neat and vivid style in which his narrations are conducted. The account of the landing of Richard at Acre forms a perfect picture. "The spectacle that this bay presented on the morning of Richard's arrival, was perhaps the most interesting and magnificent that the world had hitherto produced. On the walls of Acre stood a garrison that for twenty-two months had resisted the united efforts of the crusaders, witnessing the arrival of a navy that surpassed all the fleets of the period in the beauty of its equipments, and the excellence of its management. In the plain was assembled the noblest and bravest of Europe's chivalry, who were both besiegers and besieged for a long period, and who looked forward to this new aid as the certain means of delivering them from their embarrassments, and securing their triumph. On the remote hills that hemmed in the Christian camp, were the dusky forms of the Saracens, with their Tartar and Arab auxiliaries, who had come from their distant deserts to follow the banners of their beloved hero, Saladin. There were men from the wilds where the death-wind sweeps; To the battles of the West. "Richard landed amidst the loudest acclaims of the Christian army, and wild cries of defiance from the Mahommedan hordes." A succinct and tolerably faithful account is given of the commerce of India, and the subsequent British connection therewith. These are subjects certainly worth attention; but we think that the "British Commerce and Manufactures could have been well spared: it is much too limited and scanty. We turn from it with pleasure, to the "British Biography,” which will be generally thought the best part of the work. Here we must remark, that the author has displayed great industry and acuteness. The sketches are severally distinct and faithful, and present a judicious digest of human character. Some curious facts are given, concerning the doing and suffering of martyrs, who fell among the passions of their times. There are some omissions among the characters of the Revolution; this we regret, for they were the great saviours of the Constitution; men who ought to live "familiar in our mouths as household names.” In conclusion, we do most earnestly implore those to whom the important care of youth is directed, to look to the gross imperfections which generally pervade their system. To this subject we intend to return on some future occasion, and, in the mean time, we say to youth-study history: it is one of the best and noblest employments of human learning. Study it diligently-things transitory and things eternal are recorded for you there. Observe how old systems pass away, and new ones arise: look at the two largest and oldest families of mankind, they are degenerate; turn to the "rude barbarians," and "feudal warriors of the west," they are civilized and progressing in every art which can dignify or adorn human nature. Thus it will be seen, that humanity has not, alas! made general rapid strides, but that one nation merely occupies the place which another has held before. Place yourselves among the ruins of Thebes or Babylon, of Athens or Rome, and in the profaned relics which lie around you, much of valued instruction will be afforded. Observe how darkness falls on nations, how their lights are trampled out by barbarians; thẹn the struggle and confusion, until they begin again to emerge slowly from barbarism to civilization; from disorder to tranquillity; from poverty to wealth; from ignorance to knowledge. Truly, there are lessons here which ought to conduce, more than aught else, to the good of mankind: let the pursuit, then, of such learning, be complete and extensive. We cannot conclude better than in the words of the Roman orator:-" Hæc studia adolescentiam alunt, senectutem oblectant, secundas res ornant, adversis solatium et perfugium præbent; delectant domi, non impediunt foris pernoctant nobiscum, peregrinantur, rusticantur.” [29] ON THE NATURE AND SEAT OF PULMONARY TUBERCLES. Translated from Andral's Clinique Medicale. WHEN several lobules of the lungs are inflamed in different degrees, in such a manner as to be distinguished by their colour and consistence from those surrounding them, we sometimes find in the midst of the diseased lobules very small whitish points, some formed of a liquid matter, resembling a small drop of pus, and like it, easily raised by the back of the scalpel passed lightly over them; others are of a firmer consistence, the matter of which they are formed appearing to have passed from a liquid to a solid state before arriving at this last condition it assumes the aspect called tuberculous; or, in other words, it consists of a small round mass of a yellowish white colour, and remarkably apt to crumble, as if the molecules of which it was composed, having been originally separated by a liquid matter, had, as yet, gained but little cohesion. The lobules, in which these white points appear, present not merely the various appearances of ordinary inflammation, but occasionally we have seen them really infiltrated with a yellow serosity, and pitting on pressure like œdomatous parts. This peculiar alteration, the œdematous condition of the lungs with the formation of tuberculous points, is, according to our observation, more common around the tubercles in the horse than in man. Of course, we would not be understood that this state is always followed by the formation of tubercles; for, in several cases where the lungs have been thus infiltrated, there were no traces of them. Sometimes on the surface, or within the lobule, we observe only very small points, almost microscopic; at other times they increase and unite together, till at length the whole lobule seems entirely composed of them. Hence accrues a large white mass, termed tuberculous, which is nothing more than a lobule progressively invaded by these white points. This was very readily ascertained in a case we lately saw, where each diseased lobule was exactly circumscribed by the interlobular cellular tissue, thicker and more apparent than usual, but exempt from all appearance of tubercle. At another time, on the contrary, the spaces ordinarily occupied by this same cellular tissue are partly filled with whitish matter which does not extend into the lobules, and which, from the arrangement of this tissue, makes a track of concrete pus around those lobules which remain sound. We may, however, lay it down as a general principle that when these last are affected, the former, which surrounds and envelopes them, will be equally so. This cellular tissue is to each lobule what the pleura is to the lungs. The most frequent alteration of the interlobular cellular tissue consists of a reddish infiltration, such as exists at the commencement of certain inflammations: in the midst of this we notice the tubercles under the form of very small white isolated points. At another time a whole lobe is uniformly inflamed, and you can neither distinguish the limits of each particular lobule nor the interlobular tissue. But often, in this large piece of hepatized parenchyma, we may distinguish a greater or smaller number of white points like those which we have described, and of different degrees of consistence. In a case which lately occurred, we were well assured, that the matter which constitutes these white points was enclosed in the minute ramifications of the Bronchia, at the part where we may suppose they are about to join the air-cells. What is also remarkable in this case is, that the inferior lobes of the two lungs were inflamed in different degrees. On the right side, the inflammation was recent, and the substance of the lung only hepatized, and of reddish colour; without any appearance of the white points, or any trace of tubercles. On the left, it was of older date, the parenchyma of the lobe was indurated, and grey, presenting a great number of the white points, some liquid, like a small drop of pus, others firmer, and increasing, by degrees, to the rank of tubercles. In these different cases, what may we consider as the origin, the primordia of tubercles? Nothing, if it be not a secretion of matter, which seems to act indifferently, in the last branches of the Bronchia and the vesicles in which they end, or in the cellular tissue interposed between them, or in that which separates the lobes: this matter appears to be primitively liquid, and solidifies at an uncertain time after its secretion, becoming a tubercle. Is then every one formed in this manner?-Before coming to this conclusion, and passing it into a law, let us see if we can find any cases where they appear to have another mode of primitive formation. In several individuals who have suffered from Chronic Bronchitis, in a more or less intense form, we have found scattered throughout the parenchymatous substance of the lungs small round or elongated bodies of a reddish or a greyish colour, sometimes soft, at others hard, and even cartilaginous. These bodies were seen in a healthy as well as in a diseased hung. Their number is very variable, sometimes we find only five or six scattered in the whole extent of the lungs, at others they are innumerable: these are the bodies, which when grey and of a cartilaginous hardness, constitate the pulmonary granulations, so well described by Bayle, in his account of their exterior form. Laennec has lately published an opinion, that they are the first step in the formation of tubercles; this idea is chiefly founded on the fact, that in the centre of them, we often see a white point, which denotes the time when, according to Laennec, they become transformed into mili ary tubercles. We may object to this, that the granulations are very frequently developed in the inferior lobes of the lung, and, consequently, if they were destined to become tubercles, we do not see why caverns should not exist as often at the base as at the summit of the lung. It is true that in the little bodies of which we are speaking, white points are often noticed; but we have shown that they are not always in the centre, as Laennec has said; but are observed indifferently in all parts of the granulation; they are often, for example, found at the periphery before they occupy the centre: besides, if the granulations described by Bayle, were nothing more than incipient tubercles, we ought to meet with them, sometimes at least, previous to the formation of the miliary, in other organs, but this has never been seen either in the parenchyma, or on the surface of the membranes. The smallest rudiment of tuberculous matter which we have met with in these different parts has always been presented in the shape of white points, very different from pulmonary granulations. In the intestines, indeed, beside these white points, we often find little round bodies of a greyish colour, similar to the pulmonary granulations of Bayle; but they are evidently the follicles more or less developed, as we shall prove elsewhere. As to the granulations met with on the serous membranes, M. Chomel has already remarked that there is no similarity, save in the name, between them and the pulmonary granulations. (Dict. de Médicine, en 18 vols. Art. Granulations.) The grey and hard seems to us to be only one of the forms in which these bodies appear, we often find them red and more or less soft; when separated from the surrounding parenchyma, we see several united in clusters, or strings. We may assure ourselves by an attentive examination, that those which are white or grey, and of a cartilaginous hardness, have been red and soft. In either of these states, we find, but not always, these white points within them; often too they are partially black. If there is any organ in the body with which we can compare these bodies in their different states, when they have been separated by a careful dissection from the parts around, it is undoubtedly with the lymphatic ganglions in their healthy conditions, or more especially when inflamed.* The analogy is particularly striking in the horse, where the greater size of the objects gives a better opportunity of studying them: when red and soft they look exactly like little lymphatic glands acutely inflamed; when grey and harder, (the granulations of Bayle,) they resemble these same glands chronically inflamed. In these we often see the tuberculous matter deposited, under the form of little isolated points, which by degrees multiply and unite together in such a manner, that the lymphatic ganglions resemble nothing so closely as a large tubercle; indeed, this is absolutely the same manner in which the white points in the pulmonary granulations appear and develope themselves. It is no objection to this that anatomy cannot demonstrate these ganglions in their healthy state, for there are lymphatic vessels in the lungs, and where they are, observation teaches us that under the influence of inflammation the glands become developed, though previously they did not exist, or at least were not visible. Indeed the aspect of these granulations, and more especially their analogy with the mesenteric ganglions, which enlarge and form tubercles after Chronic Enteritis, seem naturally to lead us to admit that they are lymphatic glands. This opinion, moreover, is very ancient: Morton had long ago conjectured, that tubercles originated in enlargements of the glands of the lungs. This same opinion we find in M. Portal's Treatise on Pulmonary Phthisis, and again, lately, M. Broussais has given it the confirmation of his great talent: so that, at present, there are but three opinions in France relative to the nature of pulmonary granulations: the one party, with Bayle, regard them as an accidental formation, sui generis, bearing no resemblance to any thing in the healthy state; others, with Laennec, likewise consider them as an accidental formation, but not differing essentially from tubercles, and being the first step in their * Let those who are desirous of verifying these assertions, take care properly to isolate the granulations from the tissue which surrounds them; for their aspect is very different then from that which they present when we are content to examine them on the surface of a cut made in the lung. growth; the last, following M. Broussais, say, that they are enlarged lymphatic glands. Attentive observation has induced us not to admit any one of these three opinions on the nature of pulmonary granulations: according to our notions, they are not accidental formations, neither are they lymphatic ganglions, however like them they may sometimes appear. So long, indeed, as we were contented to examine them, by cutting the lung in slices, and then dissecting them from the surrounding tissue, were we strongly inclined, from their similarity, to regard them as lymphatic ganglions; yet nevertheless, we felt this was but a simple conjecture, which should not be rejected without examination, but would become a certainty, if, on throwing injection into the lymphatic vessels of the lungs, any had penetrated into these granulations, in the same way as it does into the lymphatic ganglions. We sought then for another method of investigation, we set ourselves to isolate a certain number of pulmonary lobules, without cutting them, without altering their texture in any way. And this is what we observed in an individual affected with chronic bronchitis, whose lungs contained both tubercles and granulations in all their different stages, from that where they are red and soft to that where they are white and hard as cartilage: several lobules, at some points, no longer presented any trace of the air-cells of which they are composed, and, instead of them, we observed the following appearances:-1st. a uniform red colour without any increase of consistence; 2dly. a green or greyish colour, and the firmness increased. It was very evident in both these instances, that the air which ought to fill the vesicle was displaced by a fluid, so that either the vesicle itself was distended with it, or it was effused into the intermediate cellular tissue, compressing instead of distending the vesicle. In the first instance, the fluid resembled blood, in the second, a serosity more or less pure. 3rdly, at other parts we noticed the same arrangement of the vesicles, the same opacity, the same discoloration, and a variable increase of firmness, even to a cartilaginous hardness; which last was where they were of a greyish or whitish tint, often mixed with a black colour. These different states are manifestly nothing more than inflammation of a certain number of vesicles, which unite in thousands to form a simple lobule. While they are not cut into, they present a smooth surface, not at all resembling granulations; but if an incision is made in the intermediate points to the inflamed portions, and not far from them, a new aspect is presented; the healthy vesicles are scarcely cut, before they become emptied of the air they contain, by the power of the contractility of their tissue they necessarily close upon themselves, and become effaced: the inflamed portion then remains isolated, and (what is well worthy of attention and quite natural) presents itself under the form of round or oblong bodies, which differ in colour and consistence, according to the degree of the inflammation. When grey and hard, they are evidently the pulmonary granulations of Bayle. We apprehend, indeed, that every time we cut a lung affected with this kind of partial inflammation, in some measure vesicular, of which we are writing, it would give rise to these granulations, just as they are produced by cutting a lobule previously isolated. Let us take two lobules, which, when touched externally, feel unequally hard and like each other; cut the one, and you will find these granulations varying in size, consistence, and form: separate the other by a careful dissection from the cellular tissue, which divides it from the neighbouring lobules, and you will have no granulations, you will only find some points of the lobule differing from the rest in colour, consistence, and the annihilation of the vesicles. Thus, then, we look upon the granular phthisis of Bayle simply as the result of a great number of partial vesicular inflammations, in the midst of the substance of the lung. These inflammations may be so multiplied, that the granulations they produce, when we have cut into the lung, may touch and be confounded together in such a way that the pulmonary parenchyma may appear to be uniformly indurated. But this is merely an appearance, and, after an attentive examination, it |