think, already shaken in his conviction as to this practice; but he clings to the view that non-interchangeability is due to "error in the rough chuck and not in the mandrel." Now, in all practical matters it would always delight me to be allowed to hold the candle while Mr. Wenham does the work; but this is a question to be settled by mathematicians and thinkers at the study table, and it is only the demonstration of the principles which can be given to us by the "practical mechanics," to whom Mr. Wenham appeals. If I might paraphrase what Mr. Evans said to me, I should say that Mr. Wenham is "right in practice, but wrong in theory." To this question I have given much work in the lathe-room as well as otherwise, and as the result of that work I say that, make a chuck as true as you like upon its surface, if then reversed, it will not run true unless the mandrel-head be true On the other hand, if the mandrel-heads are true, a chuck, however rough or unfinished, will run equally true upon them all. As Mr. Wenham is now a country squire, he might test and report upon this proposition. A reversible chuck, which I find answers perfectly for the testing of mandrel-heads, is now being engraved, and will shortly appear in the ENGLISH MECHANIC, with a paper on "Interchangeable Mandrels." I think Mr. Wenham does not yet fully realise that a screw-thread cannot be made, even in his own laboratory practice, to act as a true centring agent for a cylinder whose latitude upon the screw-bolt is subject to change. I have no doubt that ultimately he will arrive at the same conclusion as myself, and will lend the weight of his authority to our using the screw-thread only as a tool part, while the centring is done by a cylinder-base in the nose of the mandrel. reason of the taper-fit (cylinder-fit) alone? tion or the non-appropriation of sounds CAN MAN HAVE BEEN EVOLVED אז Though it has been necessary to point out institution for the dumb, and he notes the the shortcomings of Mr. Holtzapffel's great expressiveness of such gesturereference to this topic, I may, perhaps, language, but he omits to note also that without presumption, say that the issue of in the case in question there is no proof that Volume V. is a fact that all amateur turners the dumb express abstract ideas by the may congratulate themselves upon. No motions they have been taught to perform. mechanical man's library will henceforth be Ballets in which a story is told by the complete without this volume. It is a most gestures and facial expressions of the dancers valuable and interesting repertory of infor- without the utterance of a single word also mation upon the subjects of ornamental help to make it "abundantly evident that turning, and will take permanent rank as a rational conceptions-abstract ideas-can classic in mechanical subjects. exist without spoken words." That is acknowledged-no one disputes it; but it does not prove that animals are incapable of forming abstract ideas. Mr. Mivart admits that animals have intelligence, underFROM THE LOWER ANIMALS? standing, and knowledge in the loose sense [N an article in this month's Nineteenth in which those terms are popularly used. Century, Prof. St. G. Mivart puts a In a sense, too, he allows they have memolimit to the possibility of Evolution, and ries, anticipations, inferences, a certain argues, ably enough from his own point of power of language, &c.; they recognise view, that it is impossible for man to have classes of objects, seek, follow up, and rest been developed from inferior animals. He in the pleasurable, avoid the painful, and in is, it seems, profoundly convinced that the a sense take means of attaining desired more deeply and thoroughly human nature ends. But he does not hesitate to affirm is studied, the more clear and decisive will that there is no known action of any animal be the conviction arrived at that the power which cannot be fully accounted for by the of mental abstraction and of language, agency of those lower and merely sensitive which is its external sign, mark the most powers, including the co-ordinated actions by interesting and impassable limit to evolution. which the pleasurable is adhered to and the Mr. St. George Mivart is an able opponent painful avoided, which we know may act in of the Darwinian hypothesis: he has some- animals without the co-operation of intellect, thing to say, and knows how to say it; he because they do so act in ourselves. True appears to recognise the evolution of the intelligence is not to be accorded to animals, mere mechanical parts of the living organ-because their actions can be explained withism, but draws the line at the evolution of out it--by that mere sensitivity which phythose faculties which we denominate intelli-siology shows us they possess and which we In my homely way I ventured to describe gence or mind. To the Evolutionist, pure possess. Mr. Mivart lays down four rules the transfer chucks as "rickety, complicated, and simple, there seems no more reason to of guidance in examining this question, and spoilable contrivances intended for levelling doubt that the faculties, such as they are, his fourth rule he says absolutely compels up and extending the radius of a badly-possessed by animals, can develop into the us to deny the possession of intellectual made mandrel-face, and at the same time highest order of intelligence, than that the faculties to animals. His fourth rule may providing a cylinder-fit by means of which bodies which contain those faculties can be thus stated. If any cause exists it would a chuck can be correctly centred, apart from develop into higher forms of animal life; inevitably produce certain effects; we must the influence of a badly-made inandrel-but Mr. Mivart draws a line between bodily not suppose the existence of that cause when nose." and mental development, and in his view it such effects are not to be discovered. Then On examining Mr. Holtzapffel's diagrams, is impassable. In his article, Mr. Mivart if animals, he argues, had the higher mental it is clear that his present transfer chucks goes over old and well-trodden ground, and powers they would very soon make us unhave degenerated considerably from those it is therefore necessary to note only the mistakably aware that such was the case. formerly made by the Holtzapffel shop for points which he considers support his views. They need merely use a significant gestureMr. Perigal. The taking up of nearly half Mr. St. G. Mivart says that there is one language, and not utter a word; but the length of the screw-nose must make the "plain and obvious difference between man the absence of all such unequivocal signs modern transferee chucks still more rickety and all brutes. Men speak, but animals are eloquently proclaims the essentially unintel and spoilable. Mr. Holtzapffel does not dumb." So far as we know animals are lectual nature. If animals really had ideas, seem to know where the secondary mandrel dumb, but it is a pure assumption to suppose those ideas would be sure to clothe them face is made true there is no need for occupy- that they have not some means of communi- selves in a language at least of gesture. Sc ing threads upon the mandrel nose in order cating facts to one another. Mr. Mivart Mr. Mivart concludes that the so-called into fix the longitude of the chuck, and there- says that is nothing to the point, for telligence, understanding, and knowledge fore that the proper transferor in such cases although some animals have an expressive of animals, are but sensuous simulations of is the steel ring shown in my paper (E. M." language, it is fundamentally different in such intellectual faculties. There are not a page 453). kind when compared with human language. few people we venture to think who will Then, again, Mr. Holtzapffel's diagrams But let us conceive one of those human still consider that animals such as horses, all represent the screw-threads as fitting beings which are much nearer the anthro- cows, dogs, &c., do really give us indisolidly into their centerparts, while in the poid apes than they are to the highest type cations of their ideas by their gestures, text of his instructions he does not refer to of man; let us imagine that from the mo- and they will not be too ready to conthis essential point. Now the transferor ment of his birth he has heard no human sider such indications as merely sensuous and transferee chucks made for Mr. Perigal, speech of any kind; and then let us imagine simulations of intellectual faculties without which I have put before the readers of if we can that such a man would be gifted a great deal more proof than is offered by the ENGLISH MECHANIC, all depend essenti- with speech "fundamentally different in Mr. Mivart. A dog, he says, may feel ally upon this screw-thread fitting very kind" from that of the birds, apes, cows, another to be formidable because courageloosely," and so as to act as a mere holdfast dogs, and other animals, which it is certain ous, but he will have no idea of courage or while the set of the chuck is determined by the have some means of communicating their courageousness in the abstract. Many combination of a true face-fit with a true thoughts, or whatever we may call them. animals, even insects, will distinguish cylinder-fit. Is it not much easier to conceive that just clearly between objects of different colours Now, if only the mandrel-face is "a true as the mechanical portion of the body has the white from the blue, for instancesurface," how can the truth of the chuck be reached its present condition by a process of but no animal knows whiteness or blueness. affected by screwing it up more or less upon evolution-a proposition which has been Every savage who rewards a youth of his the nose? If the noses be all true, if their almost demonstrably proved--so also speech tribe for bravery, or who smears his body screws be all "exactly alike as to diameter has been developed in the process of evolu- with pigments, thereby shows that these and thread," and if the mandrel-faces be all tion? The difference between the rational abstract ideas are familiar to him. Only true surfaces," where is the necessity for language of men and the merely emotional the human mind has the power of making the transfer chucks which Mr. Holtzapffel language of animals and of men does not an abstract quality a direct and a distinct has engraved? Does Mr. Holtzapffel mean depend, says Mr. Mivart, upon the fact of object of thought. Therefore a most to teach us that the transferee runs true by articulation: it consists in the appropria-marked difference - a difference, not of 46 a wood than in soft, and there is, besides, a loss of share of work, but only those which stand the economy, because each tooth is not doing its fair highest. COWS In these days, when almost every shop has its band and circular saws, there is less chance than ever for an apprentice to learn how to keep his saws in order. When I went to the trade, one of my earliest lessons was one in saw sharpening. I well remember how soon I managed to get all the teeth down one side of the saw bigger than all those on the other, forming " and calves," and the remark of the foreman that he supposed I wanted one side for thick stuff and the other for thin. I served seven years without touching a machine saw, except an old " jigger that was more plague than profit. Now, my apprentices never use the hand saw at all, except for cutting off stuff in the timber rack, since the circular and the band saws do all they want. And in many larger shops there is now no chance to use any saw at all, since even the machine saws are worked by a man kept expressly to attend to them. degree, but of kind-divides man from the such as are usually required by carpenters, cabinet The uniform set of a saw, therefore, far from highest brutes. Here, again, there are makers, and pattern makers, and describing also being a trivial matter, is one of the utmost many who will be unable to accept Mr. how these tools are to be kept in working order. importance. For if the set be not uniform, two Mivart's dictum. They will regard the Good tools may soon be rendered almost unser- or three evil consequences follow. If, for difference between man and brutes, so far as viceable for want of proper care. I do not mean instance, the set is irregular, some teeth standing it is possible for us to conceive it, as one of that they will be spoiled so that they cannot be out a little farther than others all down the line, degree and not of kind, and they will agree will be unfit, while in that condition, to fulfil the one's arms terribly, and trying one's temper. If, brought into working trim again, but that they the saw will hitch every now and again, jarring with Mr. Mivart when he says, "Of course purposes for which they are designed. These re- again, the set is regular, in so far as each side is we cannot, while remaining human beings, marks apply, with much greater emphasis, to concerned, but is not bilateral, that is, if all the perfectly and fully appreciate what the second-hand tools. Numbers of these find their teeth on one side stand out a little farther from mental state of an animal may be." Man's way to the dealer's shops and to "mine uncle," the plate than those on the other side, the saw body, Mr. Mivart says, is undoubtedly by reason of their very worthlessness, and even will run, or, in other words, manifest a tendency like that of some sort of ape; but the mere when the tools themselves are good they are usually to cut to one side of the line. Similar results folbody is not man: the essence of humanity is sadly out of order. In any case, I trust the follow-low also when a saw is buckled. Again, when the reason. An animal, unable to articulate ing hints will be of assistance to many, and form tips or points of the saw teeth are not in line, but and only able to give, in the most a fitting continuation of the "Common Lathe standing at various heights (Fig. 3), there is still rudimentary way, bodily expression to Tools." (See "E. M.," Vol. XXXIX., p. 45. readiness to hitch, more particularly in hard We commence with saws. One of the first an incipient idea, would be a man, according to Mr. Mivart's view; but he absence of winding, or of "buckle" in the plate. points to be observed here is the presence or holds that there is a limit to evolution To detect such if it exists in a hand-saw, let the between human and merely animal nature, teeth of the saw rest lightly on the fingers of both and something altogether new, a capacity hands, the plate leaning just slightly out of the for apprehending abstract ideas, first ap- perpendicular against each thumb, or, better peared on this planet with the coming of still, hold it upright with the handle lowermost, man. To the question how is it, if the Fig. 1. The eye is then cast over the face of the doctrine of man's evolution is rationally plate, to detect, if possible, any winding on its untenable, that so many scientific men hold surface. If none exists, Fig. 2, well and good. it? Mr. Mivart replies that man's origin is Then keeping the saw in the same position, a philosophic, not a scientific, question, and glance at the set-that is, note whether the teeth stand out at an equal distance from the face of that men may be very distinguished for the plate all the way down, and likewise on both scientific knowledge and yet be the victims sides. Then, holding the handle in the right hand, of a very defective philosophy. The with the narrow end of the blade awayfrom the eye Darwinian view is supported only by men and steadying with the left, look down both edges who confound "ideas with "faint revivals of the blade in succession in a longitudinal direcof past feelings," and it is on that account tion, to see that there is no "kink," or crookedthat not one of them has grappled with the ness, or buckle lengthways, and at the same time essence of the question. To make any pro- cast the eye down the teeth to see if their cutting gress in investigating the problem of man's points show a level, or rather, a slightly rounding origin it is necessary to have gained a true face. Once more, holding the handle of the saw in knowledge of what man is both hands, with the flat of the blade lying horizon- The setting of a saw may be performed in two apparently Mr. Mivart denies that the tally, shake the latter up and down and judge by or three different ways. One is by means of a Here the slit adapted to the the sense of touch and by the sound whether the steel set, Fig. 4. Darwinians possess that knowledge. Men plate is strained or no. If strained, there saw in hand is slipped over a tooth, suitable force speak, or they signify by gestures, universal will be a jerky vibration, like that of is applied to the set, and the tooth is thereby objective abstract ideas which are "poles a plate of tin which has been unequally bent over. All the teeth leaning in one direction asunder" from all powers and forms of hammered, and there will be emitted the same are thus bent in succession, after which the feeling. Sense-perceptions are groups of peculiar rattling sound. Lastly, examine the saw is turned round, and those leaning in the associated feelings; ideas are apprehensions handle to see that the grain is not "cross or opposite direction are then operated upon, the saw of objective qualities grouped round an crooked," and that the substance of wood is not being held either in a vice or by the hand during objective unity about which various judg-too thick for the hand which has to use it, for a the process. The disadvantage attendant upon ments may be affirmed. A nature which has thick handle, when grasped continuously, tires the use of this form of set, and it is a very grave this power of abstraction is separated from the hand very much. Of the temper you can one, is, that in the hands of any but a very skilful any nature which has it not by a "gulf scarcely judge, except by trial, though presumably workman, the setting will not be regular, by which is an impassable limit to evolution,' a saw with plenty of " spring" is a good one. reason of the absence of any mechanical guide. Near the handle, however, a saw should not This evil is obviated by the use of an iron block because feeling and intellect are both thus spring much, as that is a sign of weakness. If, like that shown in Fig 5, having edges bevelled to different in nature and progress, and develop on setting the saw, you find the teeth break off, suit different quantities of set. The saw is held along different and more or less diverging it is too hard, and should, if purchased new, be on the flat of the block, with the teeth leaning roads. That view will be conceded, we sup- exchanged. A hard saw, however, that would over their appropriate bevelled edge, and each pose, even by the Darwinians, and the point not stand the amount of set required in a cross cut, alternate tooth is tapped in succession of contention resolves itself into the simple will sometimes make a good rip, or half-rip for with the point of a small hammer, question whether or not animals have ideas. going down the grain, because, in the latter case, called a setting hammer, the width of whose Mr. Mivart has not succeeded in demon- the amount of set required is very slight. But striking face must be somewhat less than strating that animals are incapable of perwhere one saw only is kept, and that for general the breadth of a tooth, Fig. 6; then the is turned over and the same operation ceiving the qualities of objects and their think, the tendency has been to go to the other repeated down the other side. Any flat cubical its brittleness will condemn it. Latterly, I saw kinds, and the Darwinians have hitherto extreme, and to make saws rather too soft, so that block may have its edges filed and be made to do failed to prove that dogs are capable of a good well-tempered saw, not too brittle on the duty as a setting block. A saw may be set very forming abstract ideas; but, to borrow a one hand, nor losing its edge too rapidly on the well on the end grain of a block of hard wood, no proposition from Mr. Mivart, inability to other, is worth a Jew's-eye to its possessor. bevel being given to the block, the workman imagine a thing is no ground whatever for And it is worth noting that the highest-priced trusting to his sense of touch when delivering the not believing that thing, if reason supplies saws do not always turn out to be the best. blow, for imparting uniformity of set; in which us with good evidence in its favour. case an intervening punch is preferable to the direct hammer. Of course the yielding nature of the wood permits the teeth to bury themselves to the slight amount desired, and the results are more satisfactory than those obtained by the use of the plier set, though not equal to those yielded by the metal block. пош, and use, The same remarks as to buckle, set, and temper apply to tenon and to dovetail saws, and the only special remark to be made in reference to these COMMON WOOD-WORKING TOOLS.-I. concerns the back, which is made in iron or brass, Saws. T often occurs that an amateur, with a taste for a of tools, and after having laid out four or five the latter being the heavier and the more expen- There is a marvellous difference between a saw This last is modified into a more complete form in Fig 7 (Fig. 8 section) where A is a block of hard wood; B is a plate of steel grooved with four different sets, a, a, &c.; C is a steel punch dropping loosely into a hole, in the bottom of which is an indiarubber cube, D, which keeps the punch just above the saw teeth, which cube, however, yields readily to the pressure of the punch when it is tapped smartly with a hammer. In this case it is the punch which is brought down upon the saw teeth instead of the hammer itself, an advantage which is at once apparent to those who have experienced how a falsely directed blow will often knock two consecutive teeth, instead of alternate ones, in the same direct Here the tooth is brought close under the before the latter is struck, so that it is Fug.3. Fig 4 AUG. 15, 1884. to mistake one's aim. The four faces of the punch being bevelled to correspond with their respective set angles, and being duly proportioned in size for larger or smaller saws, simply bend the teeth without thinning them down at the points, and are capable of setting band saws, hand saws, small circular, panel, and tenon saws. This is an amateur's dodge, for a professional saw setter would prefer the setting hammer and bevelled block as being quicker in its operation; and in most cases, I believe, they use a "setting horse"-a block of iron, with a rounding face, on which the amount of set is given by varying the angle at which the flat of the saw is laid upon it. A rip or half-rip saw is the proper tool for cutting thick planking of soft wood down with the grain, and it has the least amount of set of any saw-proportional to size, of course. saw having smaller teeth, called distinctively a But a "hand saw," is that in commonest use, and is the one generally used as a "cross cut," that is for cutting planks and boards across the grain fibres, and then it will contain the greatest amount of set, and most of all for soft wet woods. Fig. 9 shows the teeth of a rip saw to full size. Fig 10 that of a half-rip, and Fig. 11 that of a hand saw for cross cutting. Below, Fig. 12, are the teeth of a tenon and of a dovetail saw. shown rip contains about two and half teeth to the A inch, a half-rip three and a half, a hand saw four and a half to five and a half, a panel saw seven or more, a tenon saw ten, a dovetail saw sixteen to twenty. Many joiners have to keep saws for special woods and for special purposes: then those for the softer woods should possess more rake (Fig. 9), than those for the hard woods (Fig. 11), the former approaching the shape of a right-angled, the latter that of an equilateral triangle, One saw only, kept for general use, should be of the latter square with the faces of the saw plate, except with having long jaws of wood, and the teeth are upon the way in which it is sharpened and set, Fig. 12. has fairly started on its downward course, not in half-rip saws are graduated, those near the bottom vent the tendency to hitch, the teeth in rip and the initial part of the stroke, and in order to prebeing not more than half the size of those nearer the handle. The eye should be cast down the blade from time to time, to see that it is not being drawn out of the perpendicular-a trouble which most beginners experience. it should be held is somewhere about that shown from 4s. 6d. to 7s. 6d. each, with different PALSTRING'S IMPROVED VELOCI- weight of the rider's body, or that can be driven by a walking motion of the rider's feet, VELOCIPEDE designed to utilise the has been recently patented (5613, 1883) in this country, on behalf of Mr. F. J. A. Freiherr von Palstrings of Kötitz, Saxony. The construction of the machine varies according as it is intended | pistons being arranged in such a manner as to for use on land, ice, or water. When used for cause, when under such action, the vehicle to propulsion on water it is placed in a vessel and move forward. In order to utilise, in a suitable provided with two or more pistons or propellers manner, for the propulsion of this machine, the arranged at the rear of the rudder. When used weight of the body of a person either alone or in for travelling on land the machine is provided combination (according to the conditions of the with wheels, and when used for travelling upon road travelled upon) with a walking motion, two ice or snow with sliding bars or runners. The springs C are provided and placed by the side of figure is a side elevation, partly in section, of the the addition frames A, maintained in a horizontal position by means of the projections a. These springs are each wound upon and attached at one extremity to a spindle arranged below the frames, while the other extremity is secured by means of a ring c between the two frames A and A. machine for use on roads. a position according to the direction of the wind, and of being used either as an umbrella or as a sunshade. In order to be able to ride easily over sharp curves cords are provided, which are attached at one end to the steering wheel, the other end passing over the guiding rollers 11 and being fastened to the steering levers inside the boxes which are provided with indiarubber sectors. The brakes are actuated by means of the levers m and the pulleys m', the straps of which are attached to the pins fixed upon the uprights K and at the lower part of the lever m. By moving the lever m forward, the straps bring the brakes into action. An additional lever m3 resting upon the lever m and capable of being fastened upon the sector m by means of a catch, serves to maintain the brake in its place. When it is required to move the machine only a small distance backwards, the lever m is drawn forward and a projection of the lever m2 is made to enter one of the concentric apertures formed in the brake. By again drawing the lever m towards him the rider is enabled to move a small distance further backwards, and the same operation can be repeated so long as the lever m is drawn forward each time and the projection of the lever m2 is made to enter one of the apertures formed in the brake. The alternate up and down motion of the additional frames A is transmitted to the shaft D by chains which are wound upon the pulleys d d and attached by means of studs to the frame ends, these chains operating in such a manner that when the frames A are raised the ratchet teeth of the couplings fitted upon the said rollers are disengaged from the teeth of the other couplings firmly fixed upon the shafts D D'. When the additional frames A' are lowered, the couplings gear together by reason of the action of the spiral springs placed between these and the wheel e, whereby the shafts D are caused to rotate in such a manner that when the right-hand When ascending inclines, and in order to preshaft is stationary the left-hand shaft rotates, and vent the machine from moving backwards, a lever rice versa. This alternative rotary motion is trans-n provided with a pawl and fixed to the side of mitted to the shafts E and E' in the following the lever m is disengaged from its catch, and the manner. Upon the shaft E' are fixed loose pawl is caused to gear with the ratchet pulleys f1, and upon the shaft E, one extremity of which is placed inside the former, there are likewise fixed three loose pulleys, one of these pulleys being fixed by means of screws and nuts to each corresponding shaft in order that the grooved pulleys g and g1, the main shaft F, and the two wheels of the machine should be able to rotate at a different speed. wheel n', which is placed upon the main shaft and between the latter and the lever m. In order to insure the perfect stability of the machine the main shaft is carried upon two lateral springs mounted upon the uprights K and regulated by means of set screws. The machine, which is steered by means of a rear steering wheel, is composed of a frame A, made, together with the other parts of the machine, so far as is conveniently possible, of steel tubing, bamboo cane, T iron or any other suitable material, the object thereof being to reduce the weight of the various parts to a minimum. This frame A is divided in two equal parts by means of a central stiffener or bar A'. The front part of the frame A may be provided when required with a couple of cross-bars or any other suitable contrivance, in order to carry a second person or luggage. By the side of each frame A is arranged an additional frame A, which is movable upon two studs placed in a longitudinal slot formed in frame A, and which receives, in order to maintain the front of the frame in a straight line, a forward motion from spiral spring a placed between the two frames. Upon each additional frame A is arranged a carriage B provided with four wheels bb, which enable the latter to follow up the foot after each step. As a rest for the feet there are provided the pedals b1, which are hinged upon joints placed in an oblique direction, and to the front part of the pedals there is fixed a spur or spike b, or any other suitable contrivance, having for its object to enable the carriage B to move by simple leverage upon the wheels which run over and under the frame A'. When the pedals b1 are depressed by the rider this spur or spike comes in contact with the ground and permits the pressure When the road is level and in good condition THE INSTITUTION OF MECHANICAL of the tread of the rider upon the latter as well as the rider may use the weight of his body alone the motion of his body to be transmitted thereby, for propelling the machine, his limbs remaining at the power resulting from such motion, which can rest. For that purpose the two collars hh,Engineers at Cardiff afforded the members be increased by that derived from a similar which are movable upon the arched frame, are motion of the arms, being transmitted in a hori- raised as high as practicable and fixed thereupon; an opportunity of seeing in actual work many of zontal direction to the axle of the machine, as this permits the additional frames A A to be those appliances which are justly regarded as the shown, by means of two handles and shoulder raised into a suitable position. If under favour- triumphs of their art, and it also afforded their pieces arranged upon the steering levers in such able circumstances, both as regards road and president, Mr. I. L. Bell, an opportunity of a manner as to be easily removable. In conse- weather, the rider requires to be seated, the stays praising mechanical engineers, a profession to quence of this peculiar leverage, when the foot or support hinged upon the arched frame i are which Mr. Bell says he does not belong. Iron which is behind is raised in order to move for- drawn backwards and a saddle is fixed thereupon and the state of the iron trade formed, however, ward, the plate b1 is depressed by the foot which by means of a bayonet joint, as shown in dotted the most important point in his address. Although is in front and the spur or spike comes in contact lines in the figure. In order to take advantage the visitor to an ironworks is apt to associate the with the ground, this contact being effected of the wind to increase the effect of the walking manufacture of iron with the presence of vast rapidly when the lever arm connected with the mechanical force, there is no metal which is spur or spike and moved by the pedal b1 is short. more easily separated from the minerals, for, as Thus the rapidity of the motion of the machine Mr. Bell pointed out, our ancestors supplied their is increased in proportion to the time required for wants by forming a small heap of ore and charmaking steps. When the machine is arranged coal on an exposed hill-side, where Nature for propulsion on water the power resulting from performed the office of a blowing engine. the action of the feet is transmitted to pistons, as At the works of the Dowlais Iron Company above mentioned, instead of to the axle, these Mr. Bell told his hearers that they would find a action of the rider, and consequently the speed of ENGINEERS. HE of the Institution of Mechanical The labour question, is one that must always the steam jet, and at the same time the blower in the chimney is started for a few seconds to draw the gas, if any, out of the smokebox. A piece of cotton waste, or a handful of lighted shavings, is put in the combustion chamber and the spray turned on; the oil immediately ignites without an explosion, and then its quantity can be augmented at pleasure. When the fuel is turned off, as in descending a long incline, the ash-pan doors are closed, and also the revolving air damper in the chimney to retain the heat. When the fuel is turned on again, the box is hot enough to light it. There are 72 locomotives running with petroleum under Mr. Urquhart's care, 10 of them being passenger engines, 17 eight-wheel coupled goods engines, and 45 sixwheel coupled. The length of line over which they run is 291 miles, from Tsaritzin to Burnack; and there are four main storage reservoirs, each holding 2,050 tons. At each shed there is a distributing reservoir provided with a gauge glass and a scale. blowing engine delivering its blast from a cylinder 12ft. in diameter, with a stroke of the same length. They would also have an opportunity of beholding a rail-mill engine on the Ramsbottom direct-action principle, the largest of its kind in the world. Now, it is no exaggeration to say that the existence of such pieces of machinery as these would have been a physical impossibility for many years after the beginning of the present century. Of the sober truth of this statement you may judge, said Mr. Bell, when I mention that I was informed many years ago by the late manager of the celebrated Wallsend Colliery of the difficulty he experienced upon one occasion in obtaining a steam-engine cylinder of about 2ft. in diameter. At that time (about the beginning of the present century) there was not an iron foundry on the Tyne capable of casting, nor a tool in the northern counties fit for boring it, Ultimately a more enterprising firm in Scotland was persuaded to undertake the work on being Mr. Bell mentions an instance of the successful permitted to cast it in two pieces, and, in addi-establishment of a shipbuilding yard in Norway tion, on being allowed to fill up with tram rails which imports its plates from the north-eastern the sloop which conveyed it to Wallsend. Since ports of England, and constructs the hull of the then how great has been the advance, the initial vessel for 15s. per ton less than the cost would be movement of which was the development of the in this country. On the other hand, Mr. Bell steam-engine by Watt! Besides the acknow- tells us that while the skilled workmen engaged ledgment of the immense services rendered to in the manufacture of ship plates earn three or the art of making iron by mechanical science, four times as much as their German representaMr. Bell had another object in selecting tives, owing to the large production the wages iron as the subject of his address. The per ton are not higher in the English than in Bessemer process has revolutionised the process German works. When the production increases of obtaining it in the malleable form, the product in the latter the cost will fall, and the Germans is purer, and the cost of conversion is less than will probably supply the plates for the Norwegian that obtained by means of the puddling furnace. shipbuilders. Mr. Bell concluded a highly inSilicon, sulphur, and phosphorus are the sub-teresting address by giving what is probably an stances which injure iron, and Mr. Bell stated approximately accurate account of the various that while Middlesbrough pig contained 3-35 per sources of consumption of the coal raised in this cent., iron rails and steel rails manufactured from country. From his table it appears that there is Cleveland ironstone contained respectively 524 consumed for mechanical purposes, or for indusand 214 of the injurious metalloids, the iron tries wholly dependent on machinery, about 63 rails having nearly one and a half times more per cent. of all the coal raised in Great Britain. than the steel rails. Passing in review many The first paper read was entitled, "On Recent technical points of great interest to the metal- Extensions of Dock Accommodation and Coallurgist and ironmaster, Mr. Bell went on to say Shipping Machinery at the Bute Docks, Cardiff," that the superiority of quality in the product by Mr. J. McConnochie, the most interesting does not by any means exhaust the advantages portions of which were the descriptions of possessed by what is often known as the pneu- hydraulic machines for lifting coal trucks from matic over the puddling process. Dissimilar as the rails and tipping their contents into the the two modes of procedure are in appearance, holds of ships. The last two hoists erected at there is in principle not much difference between Cardiff have a lift of 27ft., to accommodate the the two systems. In the puddling furnace the increasing size of the vessels employed in the workman, by very severe labour, exposes the coal trade; the coal is discharged into a hopper liquid iron to the joint oxidising influence of the resting on the deck, which hopper is provided bath of cinder and of the atmospheric air. The with a telescope neck closed at the lower end by a conical valve held up by an auxiliary crane. ditions is so slow, and the radiation and other By means of this arrangement the coal can be cooling influences, being extended over a much quietly deposited at the bottom of the vessel's longer time, are so great, that 20cwt. of coal are hold, the conical valve helping to form a heap consumed for each ton of puddled iron made. on which the succeeding truck loads can be shot, In the Bessemer converter, on the contrary, the and be, as it were, automatically spread. As much At present four steam navvies mechanical action of the workman is replaced by as 200 tons of coal have been shipped by these are at work here day and night, and more than the passage of the air up and through the molten tips per hour, and it is not an uncommon event one half the material has already been removed mass of pig iron. Fresh surfaces of metal are, for a vessel of 2,000 tons to enter the dock at high The entrance to the tunnel on the Welsh side is by this mode of treatment, brought so rapidly water on one day, discharge her ballast, fill up also through a cutting about one mile long and in contact with renewed supplies of oxygen that with coal, and leave at high water on the next 60ft. deep at the tunnel mouth. Two-thirds of the operation on eight or ten tons is completed day. Amongst other papers, an interesting one this cutting are completed. As both these cutin one-sixth of the time required in puddling by Mr. E. P. Rathbone, on the "Vat Process tings lie in the marsh lands adjoining the river four or five hundredweights. Very little heat is for the Amalgamation of Silver Ores as Severn, heavy sea banks have been tipped to wasted in the manner so conspicuous in the pud-carried on at the mines in Bolivia, was prevent high spring tides from entering the dling process; so that the great heat evolved by read. A more important paper, considering tunnel. It is estimated that the whole of these the combustion of the metalloids, along with that its wider usefulness, was that by Mr. T. works will be completed within 12 months from contained in the pig iron as it comes direct from Urquhart, of Borisoglebsk, Russia, "On the this date. The brickwork with which the tunnel the blast furnace, suffices for the operation. Use of Petroleum in Locomotive Engines. "is lined varies from 3ft. to 2ft. 3in. in thickness, Thus the only fuel consumed is that required for In locomotive practice a mean evaporation of and is built of vitrified bricks set in Portland the blowing engine; and the expense of labour 71b. to 71b. of water per pound of anthracite is cement mortar. is so much reduced in amount that the ton of generally obtained; but with petroleum, Mr. ingots ready for the mill, including the man- Urquhart says, an evaporation of 12.25lb. is ganese, costs about fifteen shillings less than the practically obtained, giving 75 per cent. efficiency, same weight of puddled bar made from the same and the practical evaporative value of petroleum combustion of the metalloids under such con converter. than that of anthracite. The form of spray in In concluding his paper, Mr. Urquhart considers it scarcely possible that petroleum firing will ever be of use for locomotives in England on ordinary railways, but he thinks its employment on underground lines would be an enormous boon. The latter statement brought out Mr. J. Tomlinson, jun., who stated that at the present time there was practically no smoke made on the Metropolitan line, and expressed the opinion that it would never do to use petroleum on that line on account of the risk attending its storage and other considerations. A long and interesting discussion followed, in which several speakers described the appliances used for the utilisation of petroleum refuse in marine boilers, and others gave experiences of its value in preventing priming and incrustation when injected into steam boilers. The president closed the discussion with some pertinent remarks, in the course of which he explained the sources of certain discrepancies which appeared in the percentages of efficiency, and corrected the usual error about the heat gained by decomposing steam and burning the oxygen thus obtained. The next paper was by Mr. J. H. Hallett, of Cardiff, on the "Causes and Remedies of Corrosion in Marine Boilers," which, with some others, we must leave for future notice. The members spent a great deal of time in visiting the various collieries, iron works, and other works in the district, and closed most enjoyable reunion by a visit to the Severn Tunnel, which was attended, on Saturday, by upwards of 400 members. The tunnel is the longest in the country, and its total length will be 7,664 yards, of which 5,500 are wholly completed and 1,560 yards about half done. The entrance to the tunnel on the English side is through a cutting 1 mile long and 60ft. deep af the deepest end. a DICK'S NEW ALLOYS. of the brass-iron type have been quality of pig iron as that used in the Bessemer must be taken at 63 to 75 per cent. higher NEW allely patented by Mr. G. A. Dick, of It is twenty-seven years since the pneumatic jectors found by the writer to give the best Cannon-street, E. C., the most important of which process was introduced, but from a variety of results was illustrated by diagrams. The com- consist of brasses, or compounds of copper and causes, some real and others of a more or less bustion chamber is constructed with firebrick zinc, containing a small percentage of phosphuret imaginary character, the complete substitution inside it, which, when heated, acts as a re- of iron or ferro-manganese, or both, which are of the Bessemer process and the abolition of generator (?) retaining the ignited gases long more uniform in composition and more readily puddling have been delayed. Perhaps the most enough to secure their thorough admixture with worked than alloys of the kind previously dis important part of Mr. Bell's address is that por-air. In certain instances the incoming air at the covered. In order to carry out his present in tion in which he recognises the changed aspect forward ash-pan damper was heated by passing vention, Mr. Dick employs phosphuret of iron of affairs both at home and abroad. With our through a narrow channel in the brickwork. containing from 2 to 20 per cent. of phosphorus, example before them, it would, said Mr. Bell, To get up steam in a petroleum-fed locomotive, or ferro-manganese or spiegel-eisen containing have been a matter of astonishment if other it is temporarily connected to a shunting loco up to 70 and even more per cent. of manganese nations had not followed our lead, and it is not a motive or stationary boiler to obtain steam for The proportional constituents of the phospharet matter for surprise that some instead of follow-the blower and the spray jet. Steam can be of iron, ferro-manganese, or spiegel-eisen, which ing should have in a few branches of industry raised to 45lb., in 20 minutes, and to 1201b. in 55 are of the ordinary trade character, must be taken the lead. superior to ours, is sins to With natural advantages minutes. If the water be already hot, the full known or ascertained. The phosphuret of iron at least equal to ours, they have fairly beaten us. up, the spray nozzle is first cleared of water by saturation, taking care that the bath is main |