some very simple operation, naturally turned their thoughts towards finding out easier and readier methods of performing it. Whoever has been much accustomed to visit such manufactures, must frequently have been. 5 shown very pretty machines, which were the inventions of such workmen, in order to facilitate and quicken their own particular part of the work. In the first steamengines, a boy was constantly employed to open and shut alternately the communication between the boiler Io and the cylinder, according as the piston either ascended or descended. One of those boys, who loved to play with his companions, observed that, by tying a string from the handle of the valve which opened this communication, to another part of the machine, the valve 15 would open and shut without his assistance, and leave him at liberty to divert himself with his playfellows. One of the greatest improvements that has been made upon this machine, since it was first invented, was in this manner the discovery of a boy who wanted to save 20 his own labor.

All the improvements in machinery, however, have by no means been the inventions of those who had occasion to use the machines. Many improvements have been made by the ingenuity of the makers of the ma25 chines, when to make them became the business of a peculiar trade; and some by that of those who are called philosophers or men of speculation, whose trade it is not to do anything, but to observe everything; and who, upon that account, are often capable of combining 30 together the powers of the most distant and dissimilar

objects. In the progress of society, philosophy or speculation becomes, like every other employment, the prin

cipal or sole trade and occupation of a particular class of citizens. Like every other employment too, it is subdivided into a great number of different branches, each of which affords occupation to a peculiar tribe or class of philosophers; and this subdivision of employment 5 in philosophy, as well as in every other business, improves dexterity and saves time. Each individual becomes more expert in his own peculiar branch, more work is done upon the whole, and the quantity of science is considerably increased by it.

ΙΟ

It is the great multiplication of the productions of all the different arts, in consequence of the division of labor, which occasions, in a well-governed society, that universal opulence which extends itself to the lowest ranks of the people. Every workman has a great quan- 15 tity of his own work to dispose of beyond what he himself has occasion for; and every other workman being exactly in the same situation, he is enabled to exchange a great quantity of his own goods for a great quantity, or, what comes to the same thing, for the price of a 20 great quantity of theirs. He supplies them abundantly with what they have occasion for, and they accommodate him as amply with what he has occasion for, and a general plenty diffuses itself through all the different ranks of the society.

25

Observe the accommodation of the most common artificer or day-laborer in a civilized and thriving country, and you will perceive that a number of people of whose industry a part, though but a small part, has been employed in procuring him this accommodation, exceeds 30 all computation. The woollen coat, for example, which covers the day-laborer, as coarse and rough as it may

appear, is the produce of the joint-labor of a great multitude of workmen. The shepherd, the sorter of the wool, the wool-comber or carder, the dyer, the scribbler, the spinner, the weaver, the fuller, the dresser, with 5 many others, must all join their different arts in order to complete even this homely production. How many merchants and carriers, besides, must have been employed in transporting the materials from some of those workmen to others who often live in a very distant part 10 of the country! how much commerce and navigation in particular, how many ship-builders, sailors, sail-makers, rope-makers, must have been employed in order to bring together the different drugs made use of by the dyer, which often come from the remotest corners of the 15 world! What a variety of labor too is necessary in order to produce the tools of the meanest of those workmen. To say nothing of such complicated machines as the ship of the sailor, the mill of the fuller, or even the loom of the weaver, let us consider only what a variety 20 of labor is requisite in order to form that very simple

machine, the shears with which the shepherd clips the wool. The miner, the builder of the furnace for smelting the ore, the feller of the timber, the burner of the charcoal to be made use of in the smelting-house, the 25 brick-maker, the bricklayer, the workmen who attend the furnace, the mill-wright, the forger, the smith, must all of them join their different arts in order to produce them. Were we to examine, in the same manner, all the different parts of his dress and household furniture, the 30 coarse linen shirt which he wears next his skin, the shoes which cover his feet, the bed which he lies on, and all the different parts which compose it, the kitchen

grate at which he prepares his victuals, the coals which he makes use of for that purpose, dug from the bowels of the earth, and brought to him perhaps by a long sea and a long land carriage, all the other utensils of his kitchen, all the furniture of his table, the knives and 5 forks, the earthen or pewter plates upon which he serves up and divides his victuals, the different hands employed in preparing his bread and his beer, the glass window which lets in the heat and the light, and keeps out the wind and the rain, with all the knowledge and art 10 requisite for preparing that beautiful and happy invention, without which these northern parts of the world could scarce have afforded a very comfortable habitation, together with the tools of all the different workmen employed in producing those different conveni-15 ences; if we examine, I say, all these things, and consider what a variety of labor is employed about each of them, we shall be sensible that without the assistance and co-operation of many thousands, the very meanest person in a civilized country could not be provided, 20 even according to, what we very falsely imagine, the easy and simple manner in which he is commonly accommodated. Compared, indeed, with the more extravagant luxury of the great, his accommodation must no doubt appear extremely simple and easy; and yet 25 may be true, perhaps, that the accommodation of an European Prince does not always so much exceed that of an industrious and frugal peasant, as the accommodation of the latter exceeds that of many an African King, the absolute master of the lives and liberties of 30 ten thousand naked savages.

it

VIII.

The Doctrines of Spinoza.

JOSIAH ROYCE, 1855—.

The following exposition of the doctrines of Spinoza, from the end of the second lecture of Professor Josiah Royce's "The Spirit of Modern Philosophy," Boston, 1893, is reprinted by the kind permission of the publishers, Houghton, Mifflin, and Company. The beginning is abrupt, and in fact the whole extract loses somewhat, because it is wrenched from the context. Just before this the lecturer has been speaking of Spinoza's attitude toward God as one of "mystic adoration."

The piece is not of a kind from which the meaning can be hastily skimmed, for the subject-matter is abstract, metaphysical, and, accordingly hard to express. This difficulty, however, Professor Royce has largely overcome by the use of such concrete images as that of the circle and its diameters. The selection is interesting also as a summary of parts of Spinoza's writing. In this summary two methods, each valuable in its way, are employed that of restating the original in new words and with new illustrations; and that of giving something of what may be called the color and effect of the original by the use of bits of quotation.

:

V.

Spinoza is n't a man of action; his heroism, such as it is, is the heroism of contemplation. He is not always, let me tell you, in his religious mood; and when he is not, he appears as a cynical observer of the vanity of