tionable. Is it quite certain that we must | Compare the Coptic Tw. No doubt the recognise a feminine termination in? This sign appears in certain cases to have been groups copied by mistake for the Hieratic where the first group is written indifferently (Ib. i. 78), or (Ib. ii. 86). Mes or Más is therefore certainly the sound of the interrogative in question. It has elsewhere been pointed out that the verb has the sense of the Coptic A ¥ ***** senȧau-nȧ her-ek, mās-nå her renek, "I have striven for thee; I have conquered for thy name." The full reading, not yet satisfactorily pointed out, of is most His probably X and should be tran Λ scribed ames not ȧs. M. 3. THE fifteenth chapter of the Book of the Dead consists of a series of hymns to the Sun. It is, in fact, the most poetical part of the Egyptian Ritual, and, next to the 125th chapter (which gives an idea of the religious ethics of the Egyptians), the portion which is most likely to interest modern readers. The Litany which it contains for the departed is the most ancient composition of this kind which is known. It is probably not less than four thou sand years old. The great difficulty in translating this and every other chapter of the Book of the Dead, arises from the extreme corruption of the text. A collation of MSS. is the necessary preliminary step to translation. Lefébure has accomplished this task as far as the papyri of the Louvre permitted. He describes eighteen of these authorities. Most of them are unfortunately in a very fragmentary condition, one of them, for instance, only containing the 23rd line and the beginning of the 24th. He gives the different readings in his notes; but he has scrupulously adhered, as far as possible, to the text of the Todtenbuch, or Turin Ritual, published by Lepsius, " n'admettant même pas, lorsqu'il donne un sens correct, une variante fournie par tous les autres papyrus." Egyptologists must rejoice to find in M. Lefébure a most valuable accession to their ranks. His introduction and his notes show a very considerable knowledge of the contents of the Ritual, and will be read with interest and profit by the most advanced scholars. The Hieroglyphic text of these hymns is perhaps easier to understand than most other parts of the Ritual; but they are by no means free from difficulties which only a sagacious translator can grapple with successfully. hard passages are probably destined for a long time to baffle every effort. M. Lefébure has performed this part of his task most creditably.. Some The book gives occasion for one or two observations, which are made for their own sake rather than for the purpose of finding any fault At page 95 he is disposed with M. Lefébure. to think "que le not admettait le genre The word in masculin et le genre féminin." as he observes, that it is followed in a passage of the Todtenbuch (72, 2) by the feminine pronoun -; but this is a blunder of the MS. question is always masculine. It is quite true, On referring to the Cadet papyrus, or any other copy of the same text, he will find that the which is true reading is a or grammatically connected with the following of which a parti-group. The solitary variant Totuinen, the name of a God (Todt. 64, 10), instead of the cipial form in occurs in Denk. iii. pl. 73. extremely common form, 44 Totunen, proves nothing. M. Lefébure trans- d'écolier." It is a far more probable supposi lates www organisant ses familles par l'eau courante, which is certainly not very clear. The word undoubtedly has the sense organise; but it also means raise up (cf. for instance, Todt. 17, 28). The word hebbe.t, on the other hand, does not correspond to the Coptic 20 (the Hieroglyphic form of which is dum. ), but to ¿€ profunThe sense here is clearly raising up from the deep. At page 41, M. Lefébure says that the phonetic value of is not cer Of this fact M. Lefébure himself gives corroborative evidence. His most serious error is in the following sweeping assertion (page 108): les pronoms, lorsque la clarté du sens ne les exige pas, s'écrivent ou s'omettent à volonté dans les textes." If it be meant by this that when the subject of a verb is a pronoun it need not be expressed if the context is clear-that for instance, may under any circumstances whatever be translated thou speakest, speak thou, he speaks, we you or they speak, as the case may be-the assertion is not only erroneous but simply subversive of all scholarship. 3. M. MASPERO is already favourably known through two scholar-like publications on Egyptian philology. In his present one he has endeavoured to restore the text of a hymn to the Nile, two copies of which, in Hieratic writing, belong to the British Museum. His restoration of the text is accompanied by a translation into French, and prefaced by a very interesting summary of what is known from authentic sources about the literary life of Egyptian scribes. The collation of the two manuscripts known to scholars as Sallier II. and Anastasi VII. has brought to light some very curious discrepancies. Some of these prove very satisfactorily that our present copies were not made from the same original text, but some of the variants are what M. Maspero calls "variantes d'auditeur," and may be considered blunders in dictation. "Je les attribuerai," says the author, "à ce fait que le texte Anastasi n'a pas été copié à tête reposée d'après un autre manuscrit, mais écrit sous la dictée, et qu'il n'est pas comme le papyrus Sallier un livre de bibliothèque, mais un devoir tion that dictation was commonly resorted to in the multiplication of texts, and that even library copies, such as the Sallier papyrus, may have been produced in this way. An immense number of the difficulties which now attend the deciphering of Hieratic texts are most probably to be traced to the inaccuracies of difficulties, and the danger of confounding scribes writing from dictation. Against such imaginary with real grammatical forms, the only resource is the collation of texts. M. Maspero's careful comparison of the two texts ive. His translation gives no doubt as correct of the hymn to the Nile is exceedingly instructpresent state of the science. The hymn, howan idea of the original as is possible in the ever, is full of grammatical difficulties,-more till these difficulties are cleared up, one by one, so perhaps than any other known text. in a commentary like that upon the inscription of Aahmes, published by M. de Rougé, any translation must be considered as only tentative and provisional. M. Maspero promises to give a second essay, illustrative of the religious allusions contained in the hymn. This is sure to be most interesting; but the very existence of these allusions may be called in question if the translation of the passages which contain them is not absolutely to be depended on. And in bringing out the First Part of an Assyrian 4. MR. EDWIN NORRIS has done good service Dictionary. Many Assyrian inscriptions have been published; translations and comments upon them have been given by various stu dents; and the study has now arrived at the stage when a work like the present, showing ing the language, and collecting examples of the progress that has been made in deciphernearly all the known words, is very valuable. In the preface Mr. Norris gives an account of some of the difficulties he has had to encounter, such as the nature of the complicated syllabary with which the inscriptions are written, and the presence in them of words and phrases belonging to an older and quite distinct language, called for convenience the Accadian. Euphrates consisted of about 400 characters; The syllabary in use in the valley of the and nearly all these had two phonetic powers -one the Accadian, and the other the Assyrian value. A large number of the signs, being compounds, had seldom more than two phopowers; but many of the other signs had a great number of sounds corresponding with ample of a compound character with two as many roots as they represented. An exvalues is, signifying a ruler, which was pronounced sip in Accadian and riu in Assyrian. An example of a simple character with several values is, which expresses the syllables si and lim, and is used for the eye enu, the verb to see emur, and face or front pan. Some of these characters have many more values; and, as the sound of a word may be doubtful, on account of the many values of the signs with which it is written, there must netic often be a difficulty as to the proper place of a | rakip abubi, not kip abubi) means rider on the word in the Dictionary. This difficulty Mr. Norris has well met, by entering characters In arrange under their earliest initials, irrespective of their whirlwind; the value of E, in connection with abubi, is not well ascertained. In p. 30 occurs the word WE, which Mr. Norris reads akin, the true pronunciation being amir; but the meaning given, a messenger, is correct. In p. 36 we have a variant of this word, EWEY: and here the author, while getting the phonetic reading correct, misses the meaning, calling it a master; all the cases should be read messenger or envoy. The examples given under ani, in p. 39, will serve to show the difference between the Accadian and Assyrian languages; and the nature of some of the Accad words can be illustrated by the word son, which in Accad is written , and consists of two parts-the first meaning small or a child, and the second a male; thus the word is literally the male child. In p. 42 the author gives an example under The presence in Semitic inscriptions of a large number of Accadian words is another difficulty; for in many cases both pronunciation and meaning are unknown. These Accadian words belong to the language which was spoken in the valley of the Euphrates before the Semitic race conquered the country. The Accad was a dead language in the time of the great Assyrian empire; but a large part of the literature of the country, together with the syllabary and most of the mythology, was bor, which he says he does not unrowed from it. The Assyrians have left hundreds of bilingual inscriptions which were for the purpose of teaching the Accad to their own people; and these serve to give us an insight into this older languagǝ. The meanings of many Accadian words are well known; but the pronunciation is at present uncertain, because the rules of the grammar have not been made out. The Accad is considered to be a Turanian language; and Mr. Norris notices the Turanian affinities of some of the words. Excellent as the present work is, there are several points in which it requires correction: this could hardly fail to be the case in the present condition of the study. The Syllabary which Mr. Norris has placed at the beginning of the book is very imperfect. Although all the more common characters are present, there are over one hundred signs omitted; and, as a general rule, not more than half the phonetic values are given. This fault extends through the volume, the author appearing not to recognise several phonetic values of the signs. , the determinative of beasts of bur den, is throughout confounded with E. the syllable tu or tum; whereas in the inscriptions they are always distinct. In page 8 we have the word abub, which Mr. Norris translates corn, connecting it with the Hebrew. But the word does not occur on any of the contract tablets in which the sale of corn is mentioned; and the translation does not suit the texts in which the word occurs. The meaning of the word abub is the whirl هبوب wind; and it is connected with the Arabic habub. The first example, abub tamhai, is whirlwind of battle; and the third one (which should be divided as stated in the note, derstand. A comparison of this passage with some of the plates in Cuneiform Inscriptions, Vol. II, will give the required explanation; the passage reads itti asi kalbi sukhi usesibsunuti, i. e., with asi, dogs and deer I placed them. In p. 58 we have the geographical name Tel-assurri, evidently the Telassar of Isaiah xxxvii, v. 12, for its inhabitants are called Atan, the Eden of Isaiah. In the word Mr. Norris does not ΞΥ recognise the sound a for the first character, and thus calls the name pitan, instead of atanu. The sound of a for is given in Cuneiform Inscriptions, II, 3, No. 562, and quoted in p. 2 of the Dictionary, and again in p. 69. The passage in which the names of Telassar and Eden occur is as follows: azqu asibuti Dais Barna nakru extreme rebels, dwelling in Tel-assar, who Mikhranu Atanu in the speech of the people of Mikhran, Eden, inambu zikarsun; their name is called; i. e., whose name, in the speech of the people of Mikhran, is called Eden. word Babil may sometimes mean the country In p. 70 Mr. Norris says that probably the is correct; and a good instance of it occurs in of Babylonia, and not the city. No doubt this the following extract from a hymn to Nebo:Itti bit-ka bit-Zida bitu ul issannan With thy house bit-Zida, a house unrivalled; itti ali-ka Barsip ailu ul issannan with thy city Borsippa, a city unrivalled; itti ikli-ka Babili iklu ul issannan. with thy land Babylonia, a land unrivalled. The words Buḥar in p. 81 and Buhhir in p. 82 are from the same root, the initial sound being rather than b. The meaning of buhar is collection or gathering; it is not used for intention, plan, or choice; it is used for an army because the men were collected together. Mr. Norris's second example at the head of p. 82 will show this: ana aḥai ikrubu va puḥarsunu innindu, to each other they approached, and their gathering (i. e. army) they brought together. The example of buḥru (which is from the same root) quoted here from Syllabary 398, is given again correctly in p. 188. In this extract the monogram is stated to have the value of uqqi in Accad and puḥru in Assyrian. A variation of the Accadian word uggi, m = uqu, is in p. 294 rightly translated people or army; and Mr. Norris points in p. 288 to its probable connection with uku, another Accad form used for men. The geographical name -NY MY N time the capital of the country, and now Its means night, black, bad, good, &c.; and which In p. 159 we have the word is that when it means front it is sounded sat, the In p. 163 Mr. Norris notices the redundant scriptions. sa, which is so frequent in the Assyrian inLayard's Inscriptions, p. 73, where Benhader, One other example is in Mr. the father of Rezon, is mentioned,-bit-ati-su sa Rezani, &c., the house of his father of Rezon, &c., i. e., the house of the father of Rezon. Many other examples of this idiom might be quoted. In p. 169 we have the Babylonian word gagada. This corresponds with the Assyrian word qaqqadi, p. 109, meaning head; and in the same manner the Babylonian gagari, p. 170, corresponds with the Assyrian qaqqar, p. 107, meaning earth. Both Babylonian words apgagada the meaning of abundantly, and transpear to be mistaken by Mr. Norris, who gives lates gagari as all together. The passage in which the latter occurs is so clear that it ought At the head of p. 101 Mr. Norris gives a passage which he confesses his inability to make out the meaning of. The difficulty is in the word XYY, which is one of the remnants of the old Accad language. meaning is the sun-set, I being the not to be mistaken; it reads "four thousand equivalent to erib, to enter or set. In an as-ed "four thousand cubits all together." cubits of earth," which Mr. Norris has rendertrological tablet giving portents from the appearance of Venus is used for the rising sun or morning, and -YYYY for the setting sun or even ing; thus we have-"When in the fifth month and sixth day Venus in the rising sun (morning) is seen; and again-When in the sixth month and seventh day Venus in the setting sun (evening) is seen," &c. In p. 144 under the head a number of forms are given the meanings of which are obscure, but which from their position and use are interesting. These are with the reading ous in the Accad and damu in Assyrian, << with the reading lugud in Accadian | In p. 193 there is a note on the subject of the calls it ma). A number of very good instances conjunction va (or as Mr. Norris sometimes of the use of va are given; and, as most of the of the Dictionary, students have every facility passages are to be found in full in other parts follows verbs; and in the cases mentioned by for forming a judgment. Va as a conjunction Mr. Norris it follows pronouns, and in one case nealogies of the Assyrian kings. Besides the a noun. Va is often found at the close of geinstance given by Mr. Norris from Tig. iii. 92, others are found in the following published texts,-Cuneiform Inscriptions, Vol. I, p. 26, line 114; Mr. Layard's Inscriptions, p. 48, l. 2, stances. p. 76, 1. 9, and p. 83, where there are four in Mr. Norris considers that the in -N1 =Y NY, which he has enter pear so; for the sign has several sounds, and ed in p. 199 is a mistake; but it does not apamong them the required one, mil. In the case of the passage at the foot of p. 223 <<Y MY →→Y == <-, brings together in this Dictionary every ex which Mr. Norris translates rising sun, the meaning is clearly, sea of the setting sun. There is a variant for this passage in Mr. Layard's Inscriptions, p. 88, 1. 27, which gives "α#~<#1--Y=M= <Y>, tamti sa salmi samsi, sea of the setting sun. Mr. Norris gives this passage on the previous page without recognising that it is the duplicate of the one which follows. is equivalent in this inscription to salam, to set. is rightly translated wife, in the two cases mentioned by Mr. Norris in p. 238; but this sign meant either husband or wife, and sometimes only relative. In Sir H. Rawlinson's Inscriptions, Vol. II, p. 10, lines 2, 4, 9, and 10, it is sometimes translated into Semitic mut, husband, and sometimes assat, wife. ample he can find of the use of the words in question, and thus affords the means for other students to arrive at a satisfactory conclusion, even in cases which he has not been able to solve himself. In this First Part, he has given over one thousand Assyrian words, and their meanings, with translations of a multitude of passages in which they occur. On the present scale, it will require at least three more Parts, of the same size as this, to finish the work. The defects which are found here and there in the present publication will, no doubt, be cor rected as the work advances. 5. THERE is perhaps no country in Europe which has so systematic a topographical nomenclature, or possesses such ample means of investigating the meaning and origin of the names of its places as Ireland; and they have found in Mr. Joyce an explorer who has an enthusiasm for his subject, and many qualities to fit him for the task. An immense mass of maIn p. 319, by accident apparently, Mr. Norris terials lay ready to his hand in the manuscript gives at the bottom of the page a curious trans-letters and field-name books of the Ordnance lation of two passages in the annals of Esarhaddon, which he reads akkisa ziqqat-su, I cut off his retreat, or I destroyed his hiding places. The reading of each passage is akkisa qaqqadsu, I cut off his head; and the heads of the two kings, we are told, were taken to Nineveh. In p. 109 Mr. Norris rightly gives qaqqad, the head. In p. 337 the word zahuru is probably an error for zariru. Its meaning is obscure. The character which Mr. Norris calls unknown, beaten. is the monogram for the word russu, Zariru is an epithet of gold, and probably means shining (Zendzairi, golden): this passage may mean beaten gold. Some of the errors we have pointed out appear to arise from the desire, which Mr. Norris expresses in the preface, to find cognate words in other Semitic languages. Cognate words are a valuable help; and the student could scarcely do anything without them. But the cognate words are not always those the sound of which is nearest to the Assyrian. Thus the Assyrian word for an ass is YYYY imir; but it is not connected with the Hebrew the name of the Tigris mentioned in p. 128 commences with I, while the Hebrew name, Hiddekel, commences with h or kh. And in the case of the word zakiki, which Mr. Norris translates pure or purity, he gives an exactly corresponding Hebrew root in In the same manner .חמר but with ,ימר but the identification is by no means satisfactory. These difficulties with which Mr. Norris has had to contend have affected the published translations of other students; but almost all well-known words would be translated in the same way by different scholars, and the progress of investigation gradually reduces the number of doubtful ones. In cases where the meanings of words are doubtful, Mr. Norris Survey, chiefly the work of the late Dr. O'Donovan, in the notes to the Annals of the Four Masters of the same scholar, and to the various works published by the Irish Archæological Society. Mr. Joyce divides his Origin and History of Irish Names of Places into four parts. In the first he explains the plan he has followed in ascertaining the meanings of names, the changes which have taken place in process of time, in Anglicizing them, etc.; in the second he discusses the names of historical and legendary origin; in the third, the names commemorating artificial structures; and in the fourth, the names descriptive of physical features, and animal and vegetable life. Nothing could be better than this plan; and, considering the difficulty of connecting the modern corrupted or Anglicized forms of names with the older forms, it has been very well worked out. The first part, though of necessity the introduction to the others, is in reality the result of the investigations embraced in them. The value of the author's inductions depends therefore upon the accuracy of his analysis of the names. Analysis of this kind requires for its edge of the modern spoken and of the old or perfection, in the first place, a thorough knowlobsolete Irish, of the legendary lore both historical and mythological connected with each place, of the physical characters of the localities, and of the methods and practice of modern scientific linguistic analysis. Of these qualifications the last is the one which can be best dispensed with in the earlier essays in the subject. Scientific analysis cannot create facts: it can only test them when gathered. Hence philologists who endeavour to work out the meanings of local names without reference to the history and legends of the places are much more likely to go astray than one who, like Mr. Joyce, works almost exclusively by means of such history and legends, a knowledge of modern Irish, and an acquaintance of a more limited kind with ancient forms. As might be |