himself at Antwerp was circular, with a single light in the roof. The museum at Scarborough, designed by Mr. R. H. Sharp, is 32 feet diameter inside, with a skylight of 9 feet. It has also seven windows round the lower portion of the room. There are subjects, nevertheless, in all these classes, (in mineralogy, for example,) for which strong side lights are essential to an advantageous exhibition of them. In such cases small recesses may be practised for the purpose. At the Hôtel des Monnaies at Paris, the presses which contain the collection of mineralogy form a circle which encloses a small lecture theatre, and thus become doubly serviceable. We mention this en passant, that the student may be aware how room is to be gained when the area of a site is restricted. The collection of sculpture is not so well lighted as are the models and other objects, paintings excepted, in the Vieux Louvre, which are exhibited to perfection.

2917. Where the same museum is to contain several classes of objects the suites of rooms for the different departments should be accessible from some central one common to all; this may be circular or polygonal, as may best suit the arrangement and means; and, if possible from the site, the building should not consist of more than one story above the ground; on no account of more than two.

2918. For the objects it contains we question whether the British Museum is surpassed, as a whole, in Europe; and those of the Vatican, of the Uffizj at Florence, of Portici, and of Paris, are none of them of sufficient architectural importance to detain the reader by description; neither would they, if so described, be useful to the student as models. At Munich the Glyptotheca for sculpture, and the Pinacotheca for pictures, by the Baron von Klenze, are in some respects well suited to the exhibition of the objects deposited in them, better, indeed, than is the museum at Berlin. As specimens of architecture they have been highly praised and as severely censured.

2919. The public museum and library, erected at Havre, by M. L. Fortuné Brunet Debaines, about 1848, is exceedingly meritorious. It consists of a central hall for sculpture; on either side, and separated from it by an open arcade, by means of which the hall is lighted, is a gallery and a museum, the floor of which is six or eight feet above the floor of the hall, so as to afford rooms for attendants, &c., beneath. Access to these galleries is had from the hall by a flight of steps on each side of the entrance in front. A long flight of steps from the centre of the back of the hall, with other flights right and left, conduct to a picture gallery over the hall, and to a library containing 20,000 volumes, over the side galleries. It is a square of about 100 feet, not including the principal staircase. The building, without the fittings, cost about 40,000l. It is of stone. Sir John Soane's Museum, in Lincoln's Inn Fields, should be visited by any amateur contemplating the formation of a collection of works of art, to understand how much may be got into a small space, with well-lighted, warmed, and ventilated apartments.

2920. In the composition of museums decoration must not be exuberant. It must be kept in the interior so far subordinate as not to interfere with the objects to be exhibited, which are the principal features of the place. With this caution we do not preclude the requisite degree of richness which the architecture itself requires.

SECT. XI.

PICTURE GALLERIES.

2921. The subject of this section has of late years assumed great importance from the largely increased value of pictures, which are now looked upon as property. Persons having ample means must now have a collection of pictures, either of oil or water colour, or of prints, so that many galleries have been lately erected in England, to suit either the wealth of the nation or the purse of the gentleman.

2922. The arrangement of the collection of paintings and drawings has to be first decided by the proprietor or curator of the gallery. Thus: Whether in one or more roomsMiscellaneously-Grouped according to the class of objects-Divided according to the different schools of painting-The largest size of any picture to enter the collection-The admission of water-colour pictures, chalk drawings, and of prints-The arrangements as to the admission of the public-The amount and nature of accommodation for students, and any other rooms required for the keeper, for the cleaner, packing, and other similar occupations. The miscellaneous arrangement of a collection is certainly the most common, as well as the most gratifying to the public. The amateur and artist would prefer the division of pictures by schools, which obtains on the Continent, particularly in Germany. The Munich Gallery affords information as to the proportion of space which was allotted to each of the groups into which the collection is divided.

2923. In the Pinacotheca at Munich the paintings are grouped according to schools, perhaps more perfectly effected than at Berlin, and a corridor runs the whole length,

420 feet, of the building. The large pictures are placed in very large rooms, 42 ft. wide and 31 feet 6 inches high to the cornice. Some of the large room ooms are 93 feet long. The smaller pictures are placed in lesser rooms, formed on the other side of the larger ones, and with a side light from the north, which is admitted to be the best light for all pictures and for painting rooms. The museum and picture gallery at Berlin, by Herr Schinkel, is formed on three sides of a central vestibule; all the rooms are 39 feet 9 inches wide and 26 feet high, with a flat ceiling, and the light throughout it admitted by common windows down to the dado on the side. Screens about 16 feet high by 20 feet long, divide the galleries into rooms about 30 feet by 18 feet, for grouping the paintings.

2924. The number of lineal feet of wall in the great picture galleries is as follows:— Munich, 1600; Louvre, 1300; Berlin, 1116; London (on the principal floor) 670, but of late years increased to more than double that quantity; and Dresden, which as much exceeds the extent of Munich or of Berlin as did these that of London.

2925. It has been urged by the Messrs. Papworth, in their work on Museums, Libraries, and Picture Galleries, 8vo, London, 1853, that a skylight to a room, with divisions or presses projecting from the wall, is the most economical mode of arranging a building to receive an unformed collection of works of art. They also direct the picture gallery to be on the first floor; the ground floor being devoted to objects of art, not in relief.

2926. Galleries for oil paintings, large or of a moderate size, must be lighted from above. But when they are of the small cabinet size, a side light, being a suitable side light, is well adapted to their display. In the first case, the lights were formerly placed in square or polygonal tambours, whose sashes were vertical or slightly inclined inwards, their forms following the plan of the rooms; as at the Dulwich Gallery, by Sir John Soane, R.A. Of late years for large rooms, a long skylight having obscured glass in it has been preferred, with a coved ceiling under to prevent shadows falling on the pictures. This is occasionally hidden by a flat skylight having ground or obscured glass, the upper skylight having clear glass, but the necessary framework causes some shadows. It will be in the memory of many how miserably lighted, for exhibiting the pictures, is the long gallery of the Louvre at Paris, which of late years has had some dormer windows formed to admit more light. The walls should be boarded throughout for facility in

hanging the pictures.

2927. Many galleries fail of success from being over-lighted. A roof all glass would be as bad for the pictures as the open air. The glare of light, as it is termed, would be too great. This is the feeling which many readers experience in the new reading room at the British Museum; it is like reading in the open air, which is most disagreeable.

2928. The Fitzwilliam Museum at Cambridge, a library, picture, and statue gallery, affords an example of the mode of lighting for pictures, as also the effect of sculpture as seen by a low side light obtained from one side only. This is also to be found at the galleries in Dublin; in both cases not with the happiest results.

2929. Professor Magnus, of Berlin, proposed a gallery for small paintings, to be lighted by windows on both sides, and not opposite one another, reaching nearly to the cailing, and about 5 feet from the floor, each about a fourth of the breadth of the room. Between these were to be placed screens at an angle of 62 degrees with the wall. As the pictures required to be removed 5 or 6 feet from the wall, the useless space served for doorways from one compartment to another. The professor proposed a circular building for such an arrangement, perhaps somewhat similar to that described in subsec. 2916, but where the inner space was formed by a double circular staircase, to lead to several stories, and where the upper room might have the advantage of a skylight.

2930. A principle of lighting a picture gallery, namely, that the window or source of light by which a picture is seen and the picture itself, ought not both to come within the range of vision at the same time, was exemplified in the gallery built cir. 1825 by Sir Benjamin West, P.R.A., expressly for the purpose of exhibiting his paintings. Another on the same principle was designed at Clapham, by the late Mr. J. B. Papworth, and with an equally successful result. It consists in forming a side light opposite to the picture wall and above the ceiling; thus all the light is thrown upon the painting, and the source of the light is quite invisible to the spectator. This system is perhaps better adapted for a private than for a public gallery, on account of the difficulty attending the construction of the roof.

2931. We cannot close this section without referring the student to some other buildings which he may consult and judge for himself as to the effects obtained by the various means adopted. Assuredly he should not neglect to visit the small picture gallery in Sir John Soane's museum, and study the arrangements of it. The new grand gallery at the National Gallery, by the late Sir James Pennethorne (a perspective view of which is given in the Builder for 1861); the Art courts and the picture galleries at the South Kensington Museum; the picture galleries erected for the Exhibition of Industry 1862; the exhibition rooms of the Royal Academy at Burlington House; and the new rooms for the National Gallery, now erecting by Mr. E. M. Barry, R. A., are among those to which the student

is referred for the latest improvements on the subject; and in a short time the Natural History Museum, by Mr. Alfred Waterhouse, now building at South Kensington, will also be available for study.

SECT. XII.

CATTI.E MARKETS AND ABATTOIRS OR PUBLIC SLAUGHTER HOUSES.

2932. Among the improvements lately made in the metropolis, the removal of Smithfield market into the outskirts, and now known as the Metropolitan Cattle Market, has been of great benefit to London. This market was designed by the late Mr. J. B. Bunning, City architect, and opened in 1855. Several small slaughter-houses have been added to it since. The erection of larger public slaughter-houses or abattoirs round London, would tend to effect a yet further material improvement to the Metropolis. Lately a market and abattoir has been formed by the city of London at Deptford, where the foreign cattle are landed, inspected, sold, and slaughtered.

2933. Without strictly adhering to the term abattoir, which would more properly signify a slaughter-house where the cattle are slaughtered, we mean not only the place for killing, but an establishment where, after the cattle are killed under the inspection of proper officers, the skins can be arranged for sale, as well as the tallow obtained from the fat, before these are distributed to the respective trades.

2934. The infectious effluvia from the private slaughter-houses often causing contagious maladies in their neighbourhood, the French government in 1811 removed all such buildings from the heart of their capital. The result of this determination has been, not only the prevention of all cause of complaint of the former inconveniences, but has produced a set of buildings bearing a character of grandeur and magnificence proportionate to their destination. For this purpose five open airy spots were selected in the outskirts of the city, corresponding in size to the demand of those parts of the town to which they are correspondent. Those of Ménilmontant and of Montmartre are the most considerable and extensive; but the rest are constructed on similar plans, in which there is no difference except in the number and extent of the buildings. These five establishments have been of late years merged into one large abattoir, but the description of the above may still prove of use to those studying the history of the buildings mentioned in this section.

2935. The slaughter-house of Ménilmontant at Paris is situated on a declivity, which contributes to its good drainage, and the consequent salubrity of the establishment. It stands on a site about 700 feet by about 620 feet, being insulated between four streets. Through an iron railing, about 108 feet in extent, flanked by two lodges or pavillons, in which are accommodated the officers of the establishment and their bureaux, is the principal entrance of the edifice. On entering from this a large square space presents itself, from the centre of which may be seen the whole of the buildings, twenty-three in number, composing the abattoir. This court is about 315 feet broad, and on its great sides about 475 feet long, and on its right and left are four double buildings, separated by a road which traverses the whole ground parallel to the principal façade. These are the slaughter-houses, each of which is about 200 feet long by 136 feet in breadth, and they are separated by a paved court, in the direction of their length, so inclined as to carry off the filth, such court dividing them into two piles of building, each of which contains eight slaughter-houses for the particular use of the butchers. Each slaughter-house is lighted and ventilated from openings in the front walls. Above them are attics for drying the skins and depositing the tallow, and to keep them cool the flat roofs project very considerably. Behind the slaughterhouses, and parallel to them, are two sheepfolds, and at their extremities two stables, each of which contains lofts for the hay; these on each side of the court complete the two massen of building which compose the design. At the rear of the court is a convenient watering place, and two folds for the first distribution of the cattle; and also two insulated buildings for melting the tallow. These are intersected by a broad corridor, giving access to four separate melting-houses, with vaulted cellars, which serve as coolers. Beyond these, parallel to the enclosing wall, are two long buildings, divided into many warehouses on the ground and first floor, and standing on cellars, in which the undressed leather is kept, the upper floor being destined for the reception of calves' and sheep skins. The last point to be noticed is a large double reservoir of water, of masonry, carried on two series of vaults, which serve as stands for carriages. A steam-engine between the two basins pumps the water into the reservoir. The basins are about 323 feet in length. Happe was the architect; and the cost was something above 120,000l. The rent which some years ago the five establishments yielded to the city was about 12,COO. per annum.

2936. Of late years the subjects of this section have been under the discussion of scientific men, as applicable to all the important towns throughout the United Kingdom; and several such buildings have been erected, as at Glasgow, Edinburgh, and Bradford; and a carcase market with butchers' slaughter-houses adjoining, at Manchester. A description of

this building, lately erected from the designs of Mr. A. Darbyshire, was read by him at the Royal Institute of British Architects, 1st Feb., 1875, and as it is considered a well-arranged structure for its purposes, a few details will be given. It is in the shape of the letter L. In the long side fronting Water Street are the entrances, and the carcase market, 418 feet long and 55 feet 6 inches wide, paved with asphalte. Behind this are the wholesale slaughter-houses, twenty-one in number, each being 24 feet by 17 feet 6 inches inside, with a lair attached in rear, 22 feet by 17 feet 6 inches. Both of these are open to the roof, but entirely separated, and the former well lighted by rows of glass slates, which light is superior to side windows for the several operations necessary. The former has a glazed enamelled brick dado, 5 feet high, and a plentiful supply of water. They are paved with Yorkshire stone. In rear of part of the above are placed nineteen retail slaughter-houses similar to the above. In rear of these latter is the condemned meat department, consisting of a lair, slaughter-house, meat store, and boiling-house. The blood department consists of a storing room, drawing-off room, and drying room. The pig slaughtering department is adjacent, and contains a large pig slaughter-house, open yard, and piggeries. The two lodges at the gates (through which all cattle must enter the abattoir) contain residences for the porter and the inspector, with rooms for the convenience of the markets committee. The site also contains a large general lair for cattle, a manure pit, and a common room for drovers and others; suitable conveniences at various points; and a stable and gig-house for the inspector. The total cost was somewhat over 30,0007.

2936a. Space prevents us from following the author through his explanation in detail of the uses to which the various buildings are applied, but one very important feature remains to be noticed. A simple and effectual apparatus has been provided by the engineer, Mr. John Meiklejohn, of Dalkeith, by which the carcase when ready is placed on a hoist, and moved along rails across the roadway into the market, or placed into the carts; this apparatus also allows the seller to detach any particular carcase from the others, and deposit it in the cart of the buyer, without in any way disturbing the other carcases hanging on the beam. A considerable amount of manual labour is saved; and in addition, the meat intended for human food receives as little handling as possible after being dressed, and is not transferred at any time to the dirty and greasy backs and shoulders of the slaughterers. The private slaughter-houses have the same hoisting apparatus, but the carcase is placed at once in carts and removed to the butchers' shop. At the Edinburgh abattoir a central crane and semicircular hanging beam is in operation; while at Bradford an hydraulic lifting power is in use.

29366. A very interesting discussion followed the reading of the paper, in reference to private slaughter-houses; the best mode of lighting; the paving; the use of a tripery at the abattoir; blood stores; a place for salting hides; and other apparatuses. An impor tant fact was stated, tending to the greater introduction of killing animals in the country and sending the carcase up to the "dead meat" markets in cities and towns, that it has been proved that an animal slaughtered in Edinburgh, near where it was fed, and another taken from the same herd and sent as carefully as possible to London by railway, and slaughtered there, loses at least three stones in weight as compared with the other, and these represent a sovereign.

2936c. The descriptions we have given show the general distribution of the buildings which are the subject of the section. Although general, we apprehend that enough has been said on the subject, to lead to an understanding of the particular information of which in every case the architect must possess himself before commencing to plan such a structure.

SECT. XIII.

EXCHANGES.

2937. An exchange is a place of meeting and resort for the merchants of a city to transact the affairs relating to their trading. We are not aware that the ancients had any edifices exactly in their destination resembling the modern exchange, as used by us in these days; there is, indeed, every reason to believe that the ancient basilica served at the same time for the accommodation of the officers of the law and for the assembling of the merchants.

2938. All modern cities with any pretension to commerce have some place appropriated to the reception of the merchant, to which at a certain hour he resorts. Sometimes it is a place surrounded with porticoes and planted with trees. Often it is a building, including several porticoes, surrounded by offices for the bankers and money-changers, which latter use has given among us the name of exchange to the building.

2939. The exchange is, perhaps, next in importance to the town hall, and should be commensurate in appearance and accommodation with the wealth and consequence of the city; it should, moreover, if possible, be placed in the most central part. No offices or shops,

as have been constructed in the new Royal Exchange in London for the purpose of obtaining rent, should be connected with the fabric, save only as in Paris, where is a Tribunal de Commerce with its accessories, an establishment much wanted in England; and perhaps in addition to this, in a maritime country like ours, a large hall and offices for the transaction of business relating to the shipping interest. In London and other places it has been usual to leave the court of resort open to the heavens. The French are wiser; they build their exchange with a roof, for the comfort of those that use it.

On

2940. The Exchange at Amsterdam seems for a long time to have prevailed as the model for all others. It was commenced in 1608, and finished in 1613, and its architect was Cornelius Dankers de Ry. It is about 271 feet long, and about 152 feet wide. The whole edifice is supported on three large arches, under which flow as many canals. the ground floor is a portico surrounding a court, above which are balls supported on fortysix piers. The divisions which they form are numbered and assigned each to a particular nation or class of merchants. In the court and within the enclosure, is the place of meeting for mercantile affairs. At the top is another large hall, and a warehouse for various kinds of merchandise.

2941. As we consider the Bourse of Paris an admirable model, both in distribution and design, we shall briefly here describe it. The edifice in question was begun in 1808, under the designs of Brongniart, and completed by Labarre at a much protracted period. The general form on the plan is a parallelogram of 212 feet by 126 feet. It is surrounded by an unbroken peristyle of sixty-six Corinthian columns, supporting an entablature and attic. The peristyle forms a covered gallery, to which the ascent is by a flight of steps extending the whole width of the western front. The intercolumniations on the walls are filled in with two tiers, one above the other, of arched windows, separated by a Doric entablature, and surmounted by a decorated frieze. The roof is formed entirely of iron and copper. In the centre of the parallelogram is the Salle de la Bourse, or great hall, 116 feet long and 76 feet broad, wherein the merchants and brokers assemble. The Doric order is that used, with arcades round the sides, and between the arcades are inscribed the names of the principal mercantile cities in the world. The ceiling is formed by a cove, and in the centre a large skylight serves for lighting the great hall just described. It is rich in sculpture, and decorated with monochrome paintings to imitate bassi relievi, sixteen in the whole, that is, five on each long and three on each short side. They are all allegorical. The hall conveniently contains 2,000 persons. At its eastern end is a circular space railed off for the convenience of the agens de change: these only are admitted within it, and to it there is a communication from their hall of business. On the right are rooms for the committee and syndicate of the agens de change, for the courtiers de commerce, and a hall of meeting for the latter. On the left is an ample staircase leading to the gallery, supported by Doric columns, and to the hall of the Tribunal de Commerce, with its several apartments and waiting rooms. From the gallery, as on the ground floor, a corridor extends round the Salle, communicating with the Chamber of Commerce, the Court of Bankruptcy, and other public offices. The cost of this very elegant and splendid building was about 326,000/. 2942. The Royal Exchange in London was erected from the design of the late Sir William Tite, and opened October 1844, at a total cost of about 150,000l. It is 308 feet long, and 119 feet wide at the west end, but 175 feet at the east end. The central area, which is uncovered as above noticed, is 111 feet by 53 feet, and with the arcades (21 feet wide) surrounding it, 170 feet by 112 feet. The whole west end on two floors is appropriated to the Royal Exchange Assurance Office, except the entrance to the court; there is another entrance at the east end under the tower, from which, by a small court, entrance is obtained to the underwriters' establishment of Lloyd's, for assurance of shipping, which occupies a large part of the first floor. The north, south, and east sides are let out as shops, except an entrance and rooms by the London Assurance Office, which also occupy part of the first floor. The subscribers' room of Lloyd's is 100 feet long by 48 feet wide; the commercial room on the north side is 86 feet long and 40 feet wide. Both of these apartments are lighted from the ceilings and by windows into the merchants' area; they are highly decorated, well warmed and ventilated, and the finest rooms of the sort in London. The ambulatory was highly painted and decorated in encaustic by Fred. Sang.

2942a. This building has no longer the prominence as a place of meeting of merchants it once had. The Stock Exchange, close by it; the Corn Exchange, in Mark Lane; and the Coal Exchange, in Lower Thames Street, have become as important. The Stock Exchange was rebuilt in 1854 by Thomas Allason, jun. It is somewhat in the form of a Greek cross, having a dome of timber with skylights, 39 feet in diameter. It will hold about 1,200 members, but it is seldom all are present. Fireproof strong rooms with lockers are provided for the custody of securities. Besides the "house' "or large reading and refreshment rooms, there are offices for brokers in the houses communicating. The Corn Exchange is now the greatest corn market in the world; in it the factors have each a stand or desk for their samples of corn. The Coal Exchange was rebuilt in 1849, by the late Mr. J. B. Bunning, City architect. It consists of offices on several floors around a central