TABLE SHOWING THE WEIGHT OF close-hammered FLAT BAR IRON, FROM ONE INCH WIDE AND AN EIGHTH OF AN INCH THICK TO FOUR INCHES WIDE AND ONE INCH THICK.

2255. For the carcass of a building the articles furnished by the SMITH are, wrought iron columns with caps and bases for the support of great superincumbent weights; cast iron columns and stancheons are now preferred both for economy and stiffness; as was also that material for girders, beams, joists, and bressummers, until the introduction of plate iron and rolled iron; all which have been treated in previous sections. Cast, blister, shear, and spring steel; charcoal sheets and plates; boiler, tank, and flitch plates; galvanized and tinned sheets; chequered floor plates, buckled plates; flat bars up to 12 in. wide, round bars up to 8 in. diameter, square bars up to 5 in.; angle, T, and trough irons. Ties of all descriptions, straps, bolts, nuts and screws, plates, washers, and the like, employed in connecting pieces in framing where the strain is greater than the mere fibres of the wood will resist. Half-round, bevelled, oval, octagon, hexagon, moulding, and fancy irons; hoop iron, nail rods, and sash iron; shoes for piles, when that mode of obtaining a foundation is adopted; cramps for holding blocks of stone together, but those of cast iron are better, as less likely to be subject to oxidation; while those of copper or gun metal are still better; area gratings and window bars for securing openings, now generally superseded for those of cast iron, especially when of an ornamental character, as are balusters and railings for stairs and balconies; and, among other things, chimney bars, which are wide, thin, bent bars or plates of wrought iron (see SPECIFICATIONS), to relieve the weight of brickwork over a chimney opening; in kitchens and rooms where a large opening is required, and two bars may not be sufficiently strong, a wrought or cast iron cradling is necessary. The liability to expansion and contraction from the varying temperature often produces fractures about the chimney jambs, but on the whole they produce a security which sanctions their use. The Metropolitan Building Act requires that, if the breast project more than 4 in. from the face of the wall, and the jamb on either side is of less width than 17 in, the abutments must be tied in by an iron bar or bars, turned up and down at the ends, and built into the jambs for at least 8 in. on each side.

2255a. The advantage of now being able to procure wrought iron flitches of a good

length and depth has obviated the necessity of welding two or more lengths together by the sledge hammer, which has not a sufficient impetus to reach the very core of the metal, and thus the joint became weaker than the remainder of the flitch or bar. In 1864 experiments were made at Paris, on the effect of welding by hydraulic pressure; two bars, each 1 in. square, were thus welded together with great ease, and the machine was stopped when the part welded was brought down to the thickness of the bar. After cooling, the welded part was cut through, and the inside was found perfectly compact.

22556. Boiler plate is made of rolled or wrought iron. They are termed sheets when under inch in thickness; plates from a inch to 2 inches thick; and slabs when more than 2 inches thick. They are named according to the quality of the iron, or the locality where they are manufactured. The sizes of those most in use are from 6 feet to 9 feet long, 2 feet to 4 feet wide, and from a to of an inch in thickness.

2255c. Corrugated iron is sheet iron which has been rolled into the form of a series of waves. It is in that state frequently used for a covering for temporary purposes; between joists to carry concrete, &c.; and for fencing, the corrugation giving a thin sheet great capability for carrying a heavy weight, or for stiffening framework. The flutes are gene

rally about 5 or 6 inches from centre to centre. Sheets of Nos. 16, 18 and 20 wire gauge are made from 6 feet by 2 feet, to 8 feet by 3 feet; and of Nos. 22, 24 and 26, from 6 feet by 2 feet, to 7 feet by 2 feet 6 inches. In calculating the measure for fixed roofing, add to the weight per square for lapping. The sheets should overlap each other about 6 inches, and be double riveted at the joints. About 3lbs. of rivets are required for a square of roofing. In roofs, the iron sheets are best used in a curved form.

2255d. Wrought iron casements are still introduced into buildings; this has given rise to several improvements upon the old method of manufacture for making them wind and water tight. Those now generally advertised are, the patent wrought iron windows, by the General Iron Foundry Company (Limited); Burt and Potts' patent wrought iron watertight window and frame; Gibbons and White's wrought iron weather-tight casements and frames for stone mullions; and casements for wood mullions, as designed by Mr. G. Devey, architect. All these are fitted with casement stays and fastenings. Connected with this purpose are Smith's (of Princes Street, Leicester Square)" patent weather-tight water-bar,” for French casements, formed in the sill; and one of another make, by a manufacturer of the same name (formerly of Queen Street, Oxford Street).

2255e. The usual dimensions, outside of frames, of fire proof wrought iron doors and frames, and gates, may be use'ully inserted here:-5 ft. 9 in. high by 2 ft. 3 in. wide; 6 ft. by 2 ft. 4 in.; 6 ft. 2 in. by 2 ft. 6 in.; 6 ft. 6 in. by 2 ft. 6 in.; 6 ft. 2 in. by 2 ft. 8 in. ; and 6 ft. 4. in. by 3 ft.

2255f. Iron shop fronts are introduced in many towns. They are made from 12 feet by 6 feet to 14 feet by 10 feet, generally at one shilling per superficial foot. "Whole brass" and "half brass" sash bars, of nearly every form and size, are manufactured, as well as brass, copper, and zinc beads. Metal "stall board plates" hardly come within our province, except to notice them. With this subject is connected the varieties of revolving shutters in iron, wood, or steel, and with or without machinery; and made to lift up, or down, or to move sideways. A revolving safety shutter in one sheet of steel, is probably the last invention; it requires no machinery. Where the old method of putting up shutters exists, Jennings's shop-shutter shoes secure them as they are each put up, without the necessity of any shutter bar.

2255g. Wrought iron wine bins, and new registered iron bins adapted for small quantities of wine, placed in a closet in a sitting or other room, and with or without doors, will be found a useful addition in small houses.

2255h. The ornamental portion of SMITH'S work has been largely introduced, of late years especially, in wrought iron shaped by hand into various devices and patterns, more especially according to the several periods of medieval architecture. The taste is chiefly developed in gates, railings, altar and staircase standards, screens, grilles and gratings, tombs, hinge fronts, the band finishing either in a fleur de lys or trident, reaching to about threefourths of the width of the door, and of ths iron; or in some scrollwork, which curls and scrolls over the entire face of the door; shutter hinges, common door hinges; gable crosses, terminals, vanes, and hipknobs; ridge crestings; drop handles with plates, closing rings and plates; lock plates and escutcheons, knockers, keys, latches and bolts, bell pulls, levers and plate pulls; umbrella stands; scrapers; fenders and fire-irons; dog grates; lecterns and book rests; candlesticks, gas, lamp, and candle pendants and brackets, desk lights, and standards; coronælucis, lanterns, and pillars. It is almost unnecessary to add that many of these articles are to be had in polished brass, and that many of them are imitated in cast iron. Wrought and cast iron, as in panelled work to gates, are sometimes employed together, the wrought parts enclosing the panels.

2255i. As iron has now neither the tenacity nor the ductility which it gained by the old process of being repeatedly forged, the modern smith can scarcely hope to emulate the fine works which were produced in mediæval times, unless the iron be made for the

purpose. It is not easy to repeat the mediæval operations of slotting a bar, so as to get the eyes at equal distances, without a machine; or of fastening hot (or, as in later times, cold) clips; or of cutting slits into a bar from the edge, and then curling the splintered parts; yet these were common work for the smith in the 12th century. It is equally difficult to produce the twisted work which was easy to the medieval smith, whose chief care in the 13th and 14th centuries was bestowed in welding, stamping, and chiselling; the file was scarcely ever used. In welding he was careful to fire the two parts separately, getting the upper one to a white heat, the lower part to a red heat, and hammering the joint lightly at first, but harder as the iron grew colder. He disguised the uneven state of the upper part by punching on it separate dots, or else close ones, forming a sort of incised line.

2255j. In very large specimens of ancient work, some parts are additions entirely welded, others are additions confined at the ends by bands, which are welded across the groundwork. To imitate work of the 13th century, such as a grille, requires a drawing at full size, and a matrix for each leaf or bud, with an anvil cut to each section which a bar or a band is to assume; this last seems, with regard to the bar, to have been overlooked by M. Viollet le Duc. Then, when a bar has been rounded (if needful), and the end stamped, the curl is given and the smith has a stalk with a foot. Two of these must be applied to the drawing to have the point of junction marked, and the feet are to be welded together. If the sprigs then made are to be combined into branches, the larger stem is to be prepared; and, if moulded on the face, this was passed between the hammer and the cut anvil by a process equivalent to rolling the bar. After the sprigs are welded with the branch, the poverty of the joint is perhaps to be masked: usually the mask was a moulded band, to which an ornament, e.g. a cup of foliage, was sometimes added; but frequently the band was superseded by a stamped button. After the feet of the branches are welded to the trunk or main stem, bands are laid over the junction, are welded, and are finished with the chisel. The whole has to be riveted to the framework. The size and weight of the pieces at the last times of welding were difficulties that were partly obviated after 1250 by omitting the welded bands.

2255k. These operations were superseded by the introduction of sheet iron, in England before 1300, in Germany before 1400, and in France soon afterwards, which was cut and bossed to a remarkable extent, sometimes stamped, and frequently welded, but later was riveted. In work of the 15th century the bars are neither stamped nor chased, and the sheets are riveted instead of being welded; but later they are either planted or housed. Finally, the medieval smith returned to the slots, mortises, and short bars of the earlier periods, and used clips which were closed cold with rivets of soft iron.

22551. The FOUNDER, now more especially, is employed to supply ornamental fancy gates, sashes and frames, rain water pipes in 6 feet lengths, 2 to 8 in. in diameter, with their cistern heads, offsets, elbows, branch pieces, shoes, union sockets, and ears plain and ornamental. Square rain water pipes, 2 in. square, 3 in. by 24 in., 3 in. square; 34 in by 2 in.; 3 in. by 24 in., 3 in. by 3 in,; 4 in. by 24 in., 4 in. by 3 in., 4 in. by 3 in., 4 in. square, and 5 in. by 3 in. with branch pieces, shoes, ears, &c. Rain water gutters of all shapes and sizes, plain and moulded, roof gutters between slopes, square, angular, and square and angular. Pavement gutters, air or stench traps, scrapers, and coalplates, with many, if not all, of the articles required for "stable fittings" either plain, enamelled, or galvanized, as advertised by Varnel; Cottam and Hallen; the St. Pancras Iron Work Company; Musgrave, at Belfast; and others.

2256. The chief articles furnished by the IRONMONGER are for the joiner's use, and, except in particular cases, are kept in store by that tradesman for immediate supply as required.

2257. They consist in screws made in brass, copper and iron, whose common sizes are from three quarters of an inch up to 4 inches in length. They are sold by the dozen. Self-boring wood screws, the thread being made at a particular angle, are supplied in lengths of 1, 1, 1, 1, 14, 11, 14, 2, 2, 3, 3, and 4 inches. Nails are now both wrought, cut, and cast, and made of iron, copper, and zinc. They are called by a variety of names according to their special uses. See GLOSSARY, S. V. NAIL and adhesion. The weight of flooring brads (wrought and cut) per 1000 (rarely exceeding 900 nails) is

Nails for

Tacks are tinned over; and all nails can be galvanized to prevent their rusting. ornamental purposes, and likewise screws, are made with brass heads, and the latter also with gilt heads.

2258. Butt hinges, whose name is probably derived from butting close surface to surface when closed, are used for hanging doors and shutters, and made of wrought and cast iron and brass, the former varying in size from 1 to 4 inches in length; the latter from 1 inch to 4 inches. These, as well as all other hinges, are in size necessarily proportioned to the magnitude and consequent weight of the shutters or doors they are to carry; and it is to be observed, that for the well-hanging of a door or shutter, the size of the hinge should be rather on the outside of enough than under the mark. There is a species of hinge used for doors called the rising joint hinge, a contrivance in which the pivot, having on it a short portion of a spiral thread, and the part to which the door is fixed having a correspondent mass, the door in opening rises, and clears the carpet or other impediment usually placed on the floor. The projecting brass butt is used when the shutter or door is required to clear some projection, and thus, when opened, to lie completely back in a plane parallel to its direction when shut. All hinges are sold by the pair, including the necessary screws. 2258a. Besides these hinges, there are cross garnets, whose form is like the letter sidewise. These are only used on the commonest external doors, and are made from 10 to 12 inches, varying in their dimensions by differences of two inches. H hinges are of the shape of the letter H, showing their form as well as the origin of their name; and in their sizes range from 4 to 12 inches by differences of an inch, HL hinges (H.and L conjoined), whose form is implied by their naine, and whose sizes are from 4 to 14 inches, proceed by inches. Parliament hinges are to allow a shutter to open back upon a wall, and are made of cast and wrought iron, from 3 to 5 inches, proceeding in size by half inches. 22586. Redmund's patent hinges consist of, iron rising butts; or in brass with moulded burnished knuckles and concealed joints; iron and brass projecting butts with moulded burnished knuckles, flaps and concealed joints, in three sizes of proportional strength, from 14 to 4 inches projection; pew hinges, in iron and brass, projecting 1, 14, and 2 inches. Rising spring hinges in iron; and not rising spring hinges, in brass, iron, and patent malleable iron, and of single and double action; these are made flush, the knuckle being made to suit the bead of the architrave; rising swing hinges, which rise and act each way; gate hinges of many descriptions, &c.

2258c. Collinge's patent spherical hinges run from 2 to 6 inches, in plain brass, ornamental brass, and cast iron. The gate or strap hinge, from 1 foot 6 inches to 3 feet 6 inches, in steps of three inches. Improved gate springs with hardened joints. Spring hinges, and also to open both ways, are made light, strong, and extra strong, for 14, 2, 24, and 24 inch doors, in iron and brass.

2258d. Among other useful hinges are, swing centres, double action, to open both ways, known as Smith's patent, Redmund's, and Gerish's, chiefly for 2 and 24 inch doors. Hart's iron rod door springs, from 15 to 42 inches, called No. 1, No. 2, No. 3, and No. 4 qualities, also brass mounted. Circular door springs. Rising and not rising door back springs; spiral door springs; and patent climax door springs for single and double action doors, must also be noted for closing doors.

2259. Rough rod bolts are those in which there is no continued barrel for the bolt, and are for the most common service. Their sizes begin with a length of 3 inches, and proceed by inches up to a length of 10 inches; such, at least, are their cominon sizes. Bright rod bolts run of the same sizes as the last; and, as the name indicates, the bolt is polished and finished, so as to make them a better fastening, as far as appearance is concerned. The spring plate bolt is contrived with a spring to keep the bolt up to its work, but one which so soon gets out of order that we wonder it is now manufactured or used. It is made of lengths from 3 to 8 inches, by variations of an inch in size. Barrelled bolts are those in which the whole length of the bolt is enclosed in a continued cylindrical barrel, and are superior to all others in use, as well as the most finished in their appearance. Their common sizes are from 6 to 12 inches, varying by steps of an inch. All the bolts above mentioned are sold per piece by the ironmonger, as are those called flush bolts, a name given to such as are let into the surface to which they are applied, so as to stand flush with it. They are mostly made of brass, and are of two different thicknesses, viz. half and three quarter inch. Their lengths vary from 2 to 12 inches, and occasionally, as circumstances may require, as in book-case doors and French sashes, to a greater length. But for French casements, what is called the Espagnolette bolt, a contrivance whose origin is French, though much improved in its manufacture here, is now more generally in use. Smith's patent

weather-tight casement fastenings for French windows, consists of a plate formed in the edge of one door, which when shut is forced half its width into a groove in the other door. This acts in lieu of the Espagnolette bolt above mentioned. Smith's patent water bar for casements has been mentioned in pars. 2165b. and d, and 22556. Jackson's patent mortise bolt appears to be a late improvement upon the round or the flush bolt.

2260. Pullies, for hanging sashes and shutters, are made of iron and of brass, and with

brass sheaves and brass axles. Their sizes are from one inch and a half to two inches and a half in diameter. M'Adam's pulleys for window sashes, of porcelain or vitreous material, are considered to be exempt from damp and rust through which cords may become rotten. He adds to them a method of hanging double sashes with a single weight on each side of the window. Austin's imperial patent sash and blind lines are made of flax, in four qualities. A common description is made from jute, but this sort has not the strength or durability of flax, and is not so good as the common cord lines. Newall's patent copper wire cord and wire strand are extensively used for window sash line, hothouses, lightning conductors, picture cord, clock cord, tent ropes, clothes lines, &c. The advantages, as reported, being that they are cheaper, much more durable, equally flexible, and one-sixth part the bulk. Newall's patent improved iron wire rope, we do not detail.

Wire strand, 4 and 6 wire, of No. 3, 4, 5, 6, and 7 qualities; galvanized and ungalvanized.

2261. The varieties of locks, their contrivances for security, and their construction, are so many, that to describe them minutely would require almost a work of itself. All that the architect has to deal with, for common purposes in building, we shall mention. For fastening places where particular security is requisite, as strong closets for plate or cash, some of the patented locks should be used, and we must leave this matter for inquiry in the hands of the architect. Every patentee says his invention is the best. We nevertheless believe, notwithstanding the boasts of all the inventors, that no lock has appeared which an expert locksmith acquainted with its construction will not be able to pick. The locks in common use are stock locks, whose box is usually of wood, and whose sizes vary from 7 to 10 inches. Dead locks, whose sizes are from 4 to 7 inches, and so called from the key shooting the bolt home dead, without a spring. Cupboard locks of 3, 3, and 4 inches in size. Iron rim locks, whose box or case is made of iron, and which are fitted on to one of the sides of a door, and whose sizes are from 6 to 8 inches. Of those made of the lastnamed size, there are some, as also of 9 inches, which are used for external doors, called iron rim drawback locks. For the doors of all well-finished apartments, mortise locks are used. These take their name from being mortised into the thickness of the door, and being thus hidden. Gerish's patent cylindrical mortise lock, Barron's patent locks, Bramah's patent locks, Chubb's patent locks, Hobbs' patent locks "are made for all purposes, from the smallest cabinet to the largest fortress gate." To these either plain or fancy furniture, that is, knobs and escutcheons, are affixed. Pitt's patent self-adjusting spindle, with his new patent mount and spindle, and Ager's patent adjusting spindle, all command a large sale. They are all fitted with knobs and plates, from china, plain white and buff, to gold lines, gold bands, flowers, &c., and in hard woods, as ebony, maple, satin, rose, mahogany, wainscot, and walnut; the knobs in many shapes: also with plain and fancy brass, brass and china com. bined, and buffalo horn furniture. Also with glass furniture, crystal and amber, of varying shapes and cutting, with green, black, and opal cut octagons. Above and below them finger plates are generally directed to be fixed, to prevent the door being soiled in the places where it is mostly caught.

2262. The different sorts of latches in use are the thumb latch, which receives its name from the thumb being placed on the lever to raise its latch; the Norfolk-latch, which is sunk, and requires a pressure on the lever to raise the latch; the Suffolk-latch; the fourinch bow latch with brass nobs; the brass pulpit latch; the mortise latch; and Gothic latches.

2262a. Adams and Son's electric bells for domestic use, has M. Breguet's (of Paris) patent indicator system, with a dial which shows when the bell is ringing. In Thomson and Co's patent electric bells, electric fire alarms, and alarms for windows and doors, the battery is con