fo much to prove what is doubtful, as to fet things in a clear and agreeable light, they are very proper figures.

229. vi. ANTITHESIS, contraft or opposition, by which things contrary or different are compared, to render them more evident. Thus Cicero fays, "The Roman people hate private luxury, but love public grandeur." This is a very florid figure; and fuited no lefs for amplification than proof. It is esteemed a beauty in this figure when any of the members are inverted, which fome call ANTIMETATHESIS. As where Cicero opposes the conduct of Verres when governor of Sicily, to that of Marcellus who took Syracufe the capital of that ifland. To this figure may also be referred OXYMORON, or seeming contradi&ion; that is, when the parts of a sentence difagree in found, but are confiftent in fenfe. As when Ovid fays of Althea, that he was impiously pious. And fo Cato ufed to fay of Scipio Africanus, that "he was never lefs at leifure, than when he was at leifure; nor lefs alone than when alone." This is a strong and bold figure, which awakens the mind, and affords it an agreeable pleasure to find upon reflection, that what at first seemed contradictory, is not only confiftent with good fenfe, but very beautiful. The celebrated Dr BLAIR has thefe observations on antithefis; "Contraft has always this effect, to make each of the contrafted objects appear in the ftronger light. White, for inftance, never appears fo bright as when it is oppofed to black, and when both are viewed together. Antithefis, therefore, may, on many occafions, be employed to advantage, to ftrengthen the impreffion which we intend that any object fhould make. To render an antithefis more complete, it is always of advantage, that the words and members of the fentence expreffing the contrafted objects be fimilarly conftructed, and made to correfpond to each other. At the fame time, the frequent ufe of antithefis, especially where the oppofition in the words is nice and quaint, is apt to render the ftyle difagreeable. A maxim or moral faying properly enough receives this form; but where a ftring of fuch fentences fucceed each other, where this becomes an author's favourite and prevailing manner of exprefling himfelf, his ftyle is faulty; and upon this account Seneca has been often and juftly cenfured." There is another kind of antithefis, which confifts in furprising us by the unexpected contrafts of things which it brings together; but it is wholly beneath the dignity of an orator, and is fit only for pieces of humour, calculated to excite ridicule.

230. 11. FIGURES fuited to move the paffions, are 13; viz. epanorthofs, paralepfis, parrbefia, aparithmeis, exergafia, hypotypofis, aporia, apofiopefis, erotefis, cephonefis, epiphonema, apofirophe, and profopopeia,

231. (1.) EPANORTHOSIS, or correction, is a figure by which the speaker either recals or amends what he had laft faid. Sometimes one or more words are recalled, and others fubftituted in their room; at other times, without recalling what has been faid, fomething elfe is fubftituted as more fuitable. This is a very extenfive figure, and ufed in addreffing different paffions. Cicero, in Lis defence of Milo, fpeaking to the judges con.

66

cerning Clodius, fays, "Are you only ignorant what laws, if they may be called laws, and not rather torches and plagues of the ftate, he was about to impofe and force upon us?" Sometimes the correction is made by fubftituting fomething contrary to what had been faid before; Cæfar, (fays Cicero), when Antony was moft enraged, and we dreaded his cruel return, raised a very powerful army of invincible veterans; to affect which, he threw away his whole estate: Though I have ufed an improper word; for he did not throw it away, but employed it for the fafety of the government.

232. (2.) PARALEPSIS, or omiffion, is a figure, when the fpeaker pretends to omit, or pass by, what at the fame time he declares. It is used either in praise or difpraife. Thus Cicero, in his defence of Sextius; "I might fay many things of his liberality, kindness to his domeftics, his command in the army, and moderation during his office in the province; but the honour of the state prefents itself to my view; and calling me to it, advifes me to omit these leffer matters." There is a beautiful inftance of this figure in St Paul's epiftle to Philemon, ver. 19. Hermogenes obferves, that this figure is principally used on three occafions: either when things are fmall, but yet neceflary to be mentioned; or well known, and need not be enlarged on; or ungrateful, and therefore to be introduced with caution, and not fet in too ftrong a light.

233 (3.) PARRHESIA, or reprehenfion. The orator fometimes prepares his hearers for this by commending them firft, urging the neceflity of it, reprefenting his great concern for them as his motive, or joining himself with them. Thus Cicero charges the fenate with the death of Servius Sulpicius, for fending him to Mark Antony under a very ill ftate of health. His defign was to make them agree to a motion he was to make, that a ftatue and monument might be erected to his memory at the public expenfe. Sometimes the orator affumes an air of reproof, with a view only to pafs a compliment with a better grace. As Cicero in his addrefs to Cæfar, when he says, “I hear that faying from you with concern, That you have lived long enough, either for the pur pofes of nature, or glory: for nature perhaps, if you think fo; and, if you pleafe, for glory; but what is principally to be regarded, not for your country."

234. (4.) APARITHMESIS, or enumeration, is when that which might be expreffed by a few words is branched out into feveral particulars, to enlarge the idea, and render it the more affecting. Cicero, in pleading for the Manilian law, where his defign is to conciliate the esteem of the people to Pompey, thus enlarges upon his character: "Now, what language can equal the virtue of Cneius Pompey? What can be faid either worthy of him, or new to you, or which every one has not heard? For those are not the only virtues of a general which are commonly thought fo; labour in affairs, courage in dangers, induftry in acting, difpatch in performing, defign in contriving; which are greater in him than in all other generals we have ever seen or heard of."

235. (5.) EXERGASIA, or expofition, has an affi

Nnn

nity

the management of this figure, care fhould be taken that what is faid be always consistent with the character introduced.

244. In treating upon figures, we have hitherto confidered them feparately; but fome expreffions confift of a complication of them, and may come under the denomination of feveral figures, as well verbal as thofe of fentences, differently confidered. Examples of this the judicious reader will eafily difcover, both in ancient and modern orations.

II. PARTICULAR ELOCUTION, or that part of

ELOCUTION in which the SEVERAL PROPERTIES and ORNAMENTS of LANGUAGE are used to form DIFFERENT SORTS of STYLE. SECT. IV. Of STYLE, and its DIFFERENT CHA

RACTERS.

245. The word STYLE properly fignifies the inftrument which the ancients used in writing. For as they commonly wrote upon thin boards covered over with wax, and fometimes upon the barks of trees, they made ufe of a long inftrument like a bodkin, pointed at one end, with which they cut their letters, and broad at the other, to eraze any thing they chose to alter. This the Latins called STYLUS. But though this be the first sense of the word, yet afterwards it came to denote the manner of expreffion. In this fenfe we likewife ufe it, by the fame kind of trope that we call any one's writing his band. Style, then, in the common acceptation of the word, is the peculiar manner in which a man expreffes his conceptions by means of language. The reafons which occafion a variety of ftyle are principally these :

246. As fpeech and writing are only fenfible expreffions of our thoughts, by which we communicate them to others, and as all men think more or less differently, fo they naturally differ in their ftyle. No two perfons, writing upon one fubject, would use the very fame words. And they would as certainly differ in their order and connection. From these internal characters, critics undertake to discover the authors of anonymous writings. We may often obferve in authors a fondness for fome particular words or phrafes; and a peculiarity in the turn of their fentences, by which their ftyle may be known, even when they defign to conceal it.

247. There is likewise often a confiderable dif ference in the ftyle of the fame perfon, in different periods of his life. Young perfons, whofe invention is quick and lively, commonly run into a pompous and luxuriant ftyle; and while they endeavour to reprefent every thing in the brightest colours, this renders their style verbose and florid, but weakens the force and ftrength of it. But as their imagination cools, and they acquire a more mature judgment, they cut off many fuperfluities, and their style becomes more correct and nervous. But as old age finks the powers of the mind, and chills the imagination, the ftyle, too, ufually grows dry and languid. Critics have obferved fomething of this difference in the writings of Cicero himfelf. To be master of a good ftyle, therefore, it seems neceffary that a perfon fhould be endowed with a vigorous mind and lively fancy, a ftrong memory, and a good judgment. By the imagination the mind conceives the images of things. If the im

preffions of these be clear and diftinct, the ftyle will be fo too. But if the images are faint and imperfect, the ftyle will be flat and languid.

248. Variety is neceffary in difcourfe to render it agreeable; and, therefore, without a large furniture of words and phrases, the ftyle will neceffarily become infipid, by the frequent return of the fame terms and manner of expreffion. But a folid judgment is highly requifite to form a juft and accurate ftyle. In a word, the foundation of a good who are candidates for eloquence, and defirous to Cicero recommends to all ftyle is good fenfe. This affords them an opportunity to digeft their become mafters of a good ftyle, to write much. thoughts, weigh their words and expreffions, give every thing its proper force and evidence; and, by reviewing a difcourfe when composed, to correct its errors, or fupply its defects; till by practice they gain a readiness both to think justly, and to fpeak with propriety.

249. Different countries have not only a different language, but a peculiarity of ftyle fuited to their temper and genius. The eaftern nations had a lofty and majeftic way of fpeaking. Their words are full and fonorous, their expreffions ftrong and forcible, and warmed with the most lively and moving figures. This is evident from the Jewish writings in the Old Teftament, in which we find a moft agreeable mixture of fimplicity and dignity. On the contrary, the style of the more northern languages generally partakes of the coldnefs of their climate. "There is (fays Mr Addifon) a certain coidnefs and indifference in the phrases of our European languages, compared with the oriental forms of fpeech. And it happens very luckily, that the Hebrew idioms run into the Eng lifh tongue with a peculiar grace and beauty. Our language has received innumerable elegancies and improvements from that infufion of Hebraifms, which are derived to it out of the poetical paffages in holy writ. They give a force and energy to our expreffions, warm and animate our language, and convey our thoughts in more ardent and intenfe phrafes, than any that are to be met with in our own tongue. There is fomething fo pathetic in this kind of diction, that it often fets the mind in a flame, and makes our hearts burn within us." Spect. No 405.

250. Different nations vary in their customs and manners, which occasions a diversity in their style. This was remarkable in the Attics, Afiatics, and Rhodians, and is often taken notice of by ancient writers. The Athenians, while they continued a free ftate, were an active, induftrious, and frugal people; very polite, and cultivated arts and fciences beyond any other nation: but as they had powerful enemies, and were exceedingly jealous of their liberties, this preserved them from luxury. Their way of fpeaking was agreeable to their conduct; accurate and clofe, but very expressive. The Afiatics, on the other hand, were more gay and loofe in their manners, devoted to luxury and pleafure; and accordingly they affected a florid and fwelling ftyle, filled with redundancies and fuperfluities of expreffion. The Rhodian ftyle was a medium between these two; neither fo concise and expreffive as the Attic, nor fo loofe and redundant as the Afiatic. Quintilian fays, it had a

mixture

25r. The ftyle of the fame country likewife very much alters in different ages. Cicero tells us, that the first Latin hiftorians aimed at nothing more than barely to make themselves intelligible, with as much brevity as poffible. Thofe who fucceed ed them advanced a ftep further; and gave a better turn and cadency to their sentences, though ftill without ornament. But afterwards, when the Greek language became fashionable at Rome, by copying after Herodotus, Thucydides, Zenophon, and others, they gradually introduced all their beauties into their own tongue, which in Cicero's time was brought to its higheft perfection. But it did not long continue in that fate. A degeneracy of manners foon altered their ftate, and corrupted their language, which Quintilian very much regrets. The cafe was the fame with refpect to the Greek tongue; though its purity continued much longer than that of the Latin. Nor can any language be exempt from the common fate of all human productions; which have their beginning, perfection, and decay. Befides, there is a fort of fashion in language, and the generality of people are always fond of running into the mode. (See Language, Se&. VIII.) Cicero tells us, that the most ancient Greek orators whose writings were extant in his time, fuchas PERICLES, ALCIBIADES, and others, were fubtle, acute, concife, and abounded in sense rather than words. But another fet that followed them, among whom were CRITIAS, THERAMENES, and LYSIAS, retained the good fenfe of the former, while they improved their ftyle. After these came ISOCRATES, who added all the flowers and beauties of eloquence.. And as he had many followers, they applied these ornaments and decorations according to their different genius; fome by pomp and fplendor, and others by greater force and energy. In this laft way DEMOSTHENES principally excelled. Afterwards they funk into a fofter and fmoother manner, not lefs exact and florid, but more cold and lifeless. If we take a view of our own language, CHAUCER seems to have been the first who made any confiderable attempts to cultivate it. But whoever looks into his writings, will perceive the difference to be fo great from what it is at prefent, that it scarce appears to be the fame language. The gradual improvements it has fince received, are evident in the writers of almoft every fucceeding age; and how much farther it may ftill be carried, time only can discover. See LANGUAGE, Sect. IV-VIII.

252. Another cause of the variety of ftyle arifes from the different nature and properties of language. A difference in the letters, the form of the words, and the order of them, all affect the ftyle. Quintilian obferves, that the Latin tongue cannot equal the Greek in pronunciation, because it is harfher. The Latins want v, one of the fofteft of the Greek vowels; and many Latin words end in m; a letter of broad and hollow found, which

never terminates any Greek word; but v does frequently, whofe found is much fofter and sweeter. Befides, in the combination of fyllables, the letters b and d are often so situated, as to require too ftrong and unequal a force to be laid upon them, as in the words obverfus and adjungo. Another advantage of the Greek tongue arifes from the variety and different feat of the accents: for the Greeks often accent the last syllable, which both enlivens the pronunciation and renders it more mufical; whereas the Latins never do this. But the greatest advantage of the Greeks lies in their plenty and variety of words; for which reason they have lefs occafion for tropes or circumlocutions, which, when used from neceffity, have generally lefs force, and weaken the ftyle. But under thefe difadvantages, Quintilian gives his coun trymen the beft advice the cafe will admit of: That what they cannot do in words, they should make up in fenfe. If their expreffions are not fo foft and tender, they should exceed in ftrength; if they are lefs fubtile, they should be more fublime; and if they have fewer proper words, they fhould excel in the beauty as well as number of their figures. The Greek tongue furpassed the Latin in all these inftances; and both of them feem to have great advantages over fome modern languages, though this is difputed. (See LANGUAGE, Sect. V. and VI.) But it is allowed that the ancient languages have a more equal mixture of vowels and confonants, which makes their pronunciation more easy and musical.

253. But the chief distinction of style arises from the different fubjects of difcourfe. The fame way of fpeaking no more fuits all subjects, than the fame garment would all persons and all ranks. The ftyle therefore fhould always be adapted to the fubject, which rhetoricians have reduced to three ranks: viz. the low or plain style, the middle or temperate, and the lofty or fublime: Which are likewife called chara&ers, because they denote the quality of the fubject upon which they treat. This divifion of ftyle into three characters, was taken notice of very early by ancient writers. Some obferve it even in HOMER, who affigns the Sublime to Ulyffes, when he reprefents him fo copious and vehement an orator, that his words came from him like winter fnow; while he de-ˆ fcribes Menelaus as a polite speaker, but concife and moderate; and represents Neftor's manner as between thefe two, not fo high as the one, nor fo low as the other; but fmooth, even, and pleasant, or, as he expreffes it, more sweet than boney. Quin tilian obferves, that although accuracy and politenefs were general characters of the Attic writers; yet among their orators, LYSIAS excelled in the low and familiar way; ISOCRATES for elegance, Smoothness, and the fine turn of his periods; and DEMOSTHENES for flame and rapidity, by which he carried all before him. And Gellius tells us, that the like difference was found in the three philofophers who were fent from the Athenians to Rome (before the Romans had any relish for the polite arts) to folicit the remittance of a fine laid. upon them. CARNEADES was vehement and rapid in his harangues; CRITOLAUS, neat and fmooth; and DIOGENES, modest and jober. The eloquence of thefe orators, and the agreeable variety of their

manner,

manner, fo captivated the Roman youth, and in flamed them with fuch a love of the Grecian arts, that old CATO, who did all he could to check it by hurrying away the ambaffadors, could not prevent their vigorous purfuit of them, till the Atudy became in a manner universal. And the old philofopher himself afterwards learned the Greek language, when it became more fashionable; which Lord BACON ftyles a punishment upon him for his former crime. It feldom happens that the fame perfon excels in each of these characters. They feem to require a different genius, and moft orators are naturally led to one of them more than another; though all of them are requifite for an orator upon different occasions.

SECT. V. Of the Low STYLE.

454. THIS may be confidered under two heads, thoughts and language; in each of which the several characters are distinguished.

255. I. With refpect to the former, as the fubjects proper for this ftyle are either common things, or fuch as fhould be treated in a familiar way; fo plain thoughts are most suitable to it. By plain thoughts, are meant fuch as are fimple and obvious, and feem to rife naturally from the fubject; fo that any one, upon first hearing them, would be apt to imagine they should have occurred to himfelf. For the more natural a thing is, the more eafy it seems to be; though in reality it is often otherwife; and the perfection of art lies in its nearest resemblance to nature. This natural plainness and simplicity very much contributes to give credit to what is faid. Nor is any thing more apt to impofe on us, than the appearance of this, when artfully affumed. Cicero's account of the fight between Milo, and Clodius, in which Clodius was killed, is a remarkable inftance of this. (See Orat. pro Milone.)

256. But as things are fometimes beft illuftrated by their opposites, we fhall mention a contary inftance of a very affected and unnatural way of relating a fact. Val. Maximus tells us of a learned man at Athens, who, by a blow which he received by a ftone upon his head, entirely forgot all his learning, though he continued to remember every thing elfe. And, in the courfe of his narrative, he talks of a "direful and malignant wound invading his mind, and furveying the knowledge repofited there, and cruelly feizing a particular part of it, and burying it with an invidious funeral. This affected nonfenfe has no small refemblance to a great deal' of metaphorical bombaft which we meet with in many of our modern publications. But there are two properties of plain thoughts, one of which ought conftantly to attend them in common with all thoughts, and the other is often neceffary to animate and enliven this character.

257. The former is juftnefs and propriety. What Cicero fays of the death of CRASSUs the orator, feems just and natural. "It was (fays he) an affliction to his friends, a lofs to his country, and a concern to all good men; but fuch public calamities followed upon it, that heaven feemed rather to have favoured him with death, than to have deprived him of life." This thought feems agreeable to the fentiments of a good man, as Craffus was; to choose death rather than to outlive

the happiness of his country. Quintilian has a reflection upon a fimilar occafion, which is not fo becoming, upon the death of his only fon, a youth of very uncommon parts, and for whofe ufe be had begun his Inftitutions of Oratory; but he died before they were finished.. That feems to be a very natural as well as juft thought of Pliny the Younger, when he fays, "The death of thofe perfons always appears to me too hafty and unfeafonable, who are preparing fome lafting work. For perfons wholly devoted to pleasures, live, as it were, from day to day, and daily finish the end for which they live; but those who have a view to pofterity, and to preferve their memory by their labours, always die untimely, because they leave fomething unfinished."

268. The other property, which fhould often accompany plain thoughts, is, that they be fprightly. This is neceffary to enliven fuch difcourfes as require the low ftyle. The fewer ornaments it admits of, the greater spirit and vivacity is requifite to prevent it from being dry and jejune. A thought may be very brifk and lively, and at the fame time appear very natural, Such thoughts, attended with agreeable turns, are very fuitable to this style; but care fhould be taken, left, while fancy is indulged, the juftness of them be overlooked.

259. II. As to the language proper for this style it ought to be agreeable to the thoughts, plain, fimple, and unaffected.

260. The first thing is elegance, or a proper choice of words and expreffions; which ought always to fuit the idea they are defigned to convey. To call ancient Rome the mistress of Italy would as much leffen the juft notion of the extent of her power, as the Roman writers aggrandife it, when they ftyle her mistress of the world. But purity, both in the choice of words and expreffions, may be called neatnefs in language. And to be plain and neat at the fame time, is very confiftent. Perfpicuity is always to be ftudied; but epithets fhould be fparingly ufed, as they contribute to heighten the ftyle; though they are fometimes neceffary to fet a thing in its juft light. Thus, in fpeaking of Xerxes, it would be too low to fay, He defcended with his army into Greece. Here is no intimation of their unparalleled numbers, which, Herodotus fays, amounted to 2,317,000. Therefore, unless the number be mentioned, the leaft that can be faid is, that he defcended with a vaft army.

261. The next thing is compofition, which here does not require the greatest nicety. A feeming negligence is fometimes a beauty in this ftyle, as being more natural, Short fentences, or thofe of a moderate length, are likewife best suited to this character, Long and accurate periods, finely wrought up with a gradual rife, harmonious numbers, &c. are improper, as they are the effect of art. Yet fome proportion should be observed in the members, that neither the ears be disappointed, nor the sense obfcured. Of this kind is that expreffion of a Greek orator, blamed by Demetrius: Ceres came readily to our affiftance, but Ariftides not. The latter claufe is too short; and by dropping fo fuddenly, both disappoints the ear, and is obfcure. It would have been more agreeable thus, but Ariftides did not come. As to order, the plainest

and