1. WINGS, (ala), adapted for flight in all birds except the dodo, oftriches, caffowary, great auk, and the pinguins, whofe wings are too fhort for the ufe of flying; but in the dodo and oftrich, when extended, ferve to accelerate their motion in running; and in the pinguins, perform the office of fins in swimming or diving. The wings have near their end an appendage, covered with four or five feathers, called the baftard wing, (ala notba), and alula Spuria.

The leffer coverts (tearices) are the feathers which lie on the bones of the wings. The greater coverts are those which lie beneath the former, and cover the quill-feathers and the secondaries.

The quill-feathers (primores) spring from the first bones (digiti and metacarpi) of the wings, and are 10 in number. Quill feathers are broader on their inner than their exterior fides. The fecondaries (fecondaria), are those that rife from the fecond part (cubitus), and are about 18 in number, and equally broad on both fides. The primary and fecondary wing feathers are called remiges.

A tuft of feathers placed beyond the fecondaries near the junction of the wings with the body. This in water fowls is generally longer than the fecondaries, cuneiform, and may not unaptly be called the tertials.

The fcapulars are a tuft of long feathers arifing near the junction of the wings (brachia) with the body, and lie along the fides of the back, but may be easily distinguished, and raised with one's finger. The inner coverts are those that clothe the under fide of the wing.

The fubaxillary are peculiar to the greater Paradife. The wings of fome birds are inftruments of offence. The anhima of Marcgrave has two ftrong fpines in the front of each wing. A fpecies of plover, (Edw. tab. 47, and 280,) has a fingle one in each; the whole tribe of jacana, and the gam. bo, or spur-winged goose of Mr Willoughby, the fame.

2. The TAIL is the director, or rudder, of birds in their flight; they rife, fink, or turn by its means; for when the head points one way, the tail inclines to the other fide: it is, befides, an equilibrium or counterpoise to the other parts; the ufe is very evident in the kite and swallows. The tail confifts of ftrong feathers (recices), 10 in number, as in the woodpeckers, &c.; 12 in the hawk tribe, and many others; in the gallinaceous, the merganfers, and the duck kind, of more. It is either even at the end, as in moft birds, or forked, as in fwallows; or cuneated, as in magpies, &c.; or rounded, as in the purple jackdaw of Catefby. The grebe is deftitute of a tail, the romp being covered with down; and that of the caffowary with the feathers of the back. Immediately over the tail are certain feathers, that spring from the lower part of the back, and are called the coverts of the tail (uropygium.)

3. THIGHS (femora) are covered entirely with feathers in all land birds, except the bustards and

the oftriches; the lower part of those of all waders, or cloven-footed water-fowls, are naked; that of all webbed-footed fowls the fame, but in a less degree; in rapacious birds, are very muscular.

4. LEGS (crura); those of rapacious fowls very ftrong, furnished with large tendons, and fitted for tearing and a firm gripe. The legs of fome of this genus are covered with feathers down to the toes, fuch as the golden eagle; others to the very nails; but thofe of moft other birds are covered with scales, or with a skin divided into segmente, or continuous. In fome of the pies, and in all the pafferine tribe, the skin is thin and membranous; in thofe of web-footed water-fowls, ftrong. The legs of most birds are placed near the centre of gravity in land birds, or in waders that want the back toe, exactly fo; for they want that appendage to keep them erect. Auks, greves, divers, and pinguins, have their legs placed quite behind, fo are neceffitated to fit erect: their pace is aukward and difficult, walking like men in fetters: hence Linnæus ftyles their feet pedes compedes. The legs of all cloven-footed water fowls are long, as they muft wade in fearch of food: of the palmated, fhort, except those of the flamingo, the avofet, and the courier.

5. FEET (pedes), in all land birds that perch, have a large back toe; most of them have three toes forward, and one backward. Woodpeckers, parrots, and other birds that climb much, have two forward, two backward; but parrots have the power of bringing one of their hind toes forward while they are feeding themselves. Owls have alfo the power of turning one of their fore toes backward. All the toes of the swift turn forwards, which is peculiar among land-birds; the tridacty lous woodpecker is also anomalous, having only two toes forward, one backward; the oftrich is another, having but two toes.

6. TOES, (digiti.) The toes of all waders are divided; but, between the exterior and middle toe, is generally a small web, reaching as far as the firft joint. The toes of birds that swim are either plain, as in the fingle inftance of the common water-hen or gallinule; or pinnated, as in the cootes and grebes; or entirely webbed or palma. ted, as in all other swimmers. All the plover tribe, or charadrii, want the back toe. In the swimmers the fame want prevails among the albatroffes and auks. No water fowls perch, except certain herons, the corvorant, and the shag.

7. CLAWS, (ungues.) Rapacious birds have very ftrong, hooked, and sharp claws, vultures excepted. Thofe of all land birds that rooft on trees have alfo hooked claws, to enable them to perch in fafety while afleep. The gallinaceous tribe have broad concave claws for fcraping up the ground. Grebes have flat nails like the human.

Among water fowls, only the fkua, Br. Zool. II. p. 529. N° 243. and the black-toed gull, Br. Zosl. II. p. 532. N° 244. have ftrong hooked or aquiline claws. All lands birds perch on trees, except the ftruthious and fome of the gallinaceous tribes. Parrots climb; woodpeckers creep up the bodies aud boughs of trees; swallows cling. All water fowls reft on the ground, except certain herons, and one species of ibis, the spoonbill, one or two fpecies of ducks and of corvorants.

IV. FEATHERS.

IV. FEATHERS. FEATHERS are defigned for two uses; as cover ings from the inclemency of the weather, and instruments of motion through the air. They are placed in fuch a manner as to fall over one another (tegulatim), fo as to permit the wet to run off, and to exclude the cold; and those on the body are placed in a quincuncial form; moft apparent in the thick-skinned water fowls, particularly in the divers.

1. The parts of a feather are, the fhafts; corneous, ftrong, light, rounded, and hollow at the lower part; at the upper, convex above, concave beneath, and chiefly compofed of a pith.

2. On each fide the fhafts are the vanes, broad on one fide, narrow on the other; each vane confifts of a multitude of thin laminæ, ftiff, and of the nature of a split quill. These lamina are closely braced together by the elegant contrivance of a multitude of small briftles; thofe on one fide hooked, the other ftraight, which lock into each other, and keep the vanes smooth, compact, and ftrong. The vanes near the bottom of the shafts are foft, unconnected, and downy.

3. Feathers are of three kinds: (1.) Such as compofe inftruments of flight; as the pen-feathers, or those which form the wings and tail, and have a large fiaft: The vanes of the exterior fide bending downward, of the interior upward, lying close on each other, so that when spread, not a feather miffes its impulse on the air.

(2.) The feathers that cover the body, which may be properly called the plumage, have little fhaft, and much vane; and never are exerted or relaxed, unless in anger, fright, or illness.

(3.) The Down (pluma), which is difperfed over the whole body amidst the plumage, is fhort, foft, unconnected, confifte of lanuginous vanes, and is intended for excluding that air or water which may penetrate or escape through the former. This is particularly apparent in aquatic birds, and remarkably fo in the anferine tribe. There are exceptions to the forms of feathers. The vanes of the fubaxillary feathers of the Paradife are unconnected, and the laminæ diftant, looking like herring-bone. Thofe of the tail of the oftrich, and head of a species of curaffo, curled. Those of the caffowary confift of two shafts, arifing from a common ftem at the bottom; as do, at the approach of winter (after moulting), thofe of the ptarmigans of arctic countries. The feathers of the pinguins, particularly those of the wings, confift chiefly of thin flat shafts, and more refemble scales than feathers; those of the tail, like split whale-bone.

SECT. II. FLIGHT of BIRDS.

THE flight of birds is various; for, had all the fame, none could elude that of rapacious birds. Those which are much on wing, or flit from place to place, often owe their prefervation to that caufe: thofe in the water, to diving.

Kites, and many of the falcon tribe,glide fmooth ly through the air, with fcarce any apparent motion of the wings. Moft of the order of pies fly quick, with a frequent repetition of the motion of the wings. The Paradife floats on the air. Wood

peckers fly aukwardly, and by jerks, and have a propenfity to fink in their progrefs.

The gallinaceous tribe, in general, fly very ftrong and fwiftly; but their courfe is feldom long, by reafon of the weight of their bodies.

The columbine race is of fingular fwiftnefs; witnefs the flight of the carrier pigeon. See CARRIER, N° 3. The pafferine fly with a quick repetition of ftrokes; their flight, except in migration, is seldom diftant. Among them, the swallow tribe is remarkably agile, their evolutions sudden, and their continuance on wing long.

The ftruthious race cannot fly; but ftill, in running, their short wings are of ufe, when erect, to collect the wind, and like fails to accelerate their motion.

Many of the greater cloven-footed water-fowls. or waders, have a flow and flagging flight; but most of the lesser fly swiftly, and most of them with extended legs, to compenfate the shortness of their tails. Rails and gallinules fly with their legs hanging down. Coots and grebes with difficulty are forced from the water; but when they rise, fly fwiftly. Grebes and also divers fly with their hind parts downwards, by reason of the forwardness of their wings. Web-footed fowls are various in their flight. Several have a failing or flagging wing, such as gulls. Pinguins, and a fpecies of auk, are denied the power of flight. Wild geefe, in their migrations, do not fly pell-mell, but in a regular figure, in order to cut the air with greater eafe; for example, in long lines, in the figure of a>, or fome pointed form or letter, as the ancients report that the cranes affumed in their annual migrations, till their order was broken by ftorms. See Lucan, lib. v. l. 711.

The flight of birds is much assisted by their being endowed with the peculiar faculty of enlarging their bulk at will; and from this circumftance the animal is enabled to buoy itself up the eafier in the air, its specific gravity being leffened in proportion as the bulk is increased.

This arifes from certain air veffels communicating with the lungs, and difperfed over various parts of the body, even to the bones; whereby the bird, by filling or emptying thefe veffels, has the power of contracting or dilating itfelf according to the occafion it may have for the change. See ZOOTOMY.

SECT. III. Of the NUPTIALS, NIDIFICATION, and EGGS of BIRDS.

1. MOST birds are monogamous, or pair; in fpring fixing on a mate, and keeping constant till the cares of incubation and educating the young brood is paft. This is the cafe, as far as we know, with all the birds of the 1ft, 2d, 4th, and 5th or ders. Birds that lofe their mates early, affociate with others; and birds that lose their firft eggs will pair and lay again. The male, as well as the female, of feveral, join alternately in the act of incubation, and always in that of nutrition; when the young are hatched, both are bufied in looking out for and bringing food to the neftlings; and, at that period the mates of the melodious tribes, who before were perched on fome fprig, and by their warbling alleviated the care of the females

confined

time, white, spotted with brown. The hoopoe lays but two cinereous eggs. The creeper lays a great number of eggs. The honeyfucker, the leaft and moft defenceless of birds, lays but two; but the extinction of the genus is prevented, by a fwiftnefs of flight that eludes every pursuit.

The gallinaceous order, the most useful of any to mankind, lay the most eggs, from 8 to 20. Benigna circa hoc natura, innocua et efculenta animalia fæcunda generavit, is a fine obfervation of Pliny; with exception of the bustard, a bird that hangs between the gallinaceous and the waders, which lays only two. The columbine order lays but two white eggs; but the domeftic kind, breeding almost every month, fupports the remark of the Roman naturalist..

All of the pafferine order lay from four to fix eggs, except the titmoufe and the wren, which lay 15 or 18, and the goatfucker, which lays only two. The ftruthious order difagree much in the number of eggs; the oftrich laying many, as far as 50, the dodo but one.

The cloven-footed water fowls, or waders, lay, in general, four eggs; the crane and the Norfolk plover feldom more than two. All of the fnipe and plover genus are of a dirty white, or olive spotted with black, and scarce to be diftinguifhed in the holes they lay in. The land rails (an ambiguous fpecies), lay from 15 to 20. Of birds with pinnated feet, the coot lays seven or eight eggs, and sometimes more. Grebes, from four to eight, and thofe white.

影

The web-footed, or fwimmers, differ in the number of their eggs. Those which border on the order of waders day few eggs; the avofet two, the flamingo three, the albatrofs, the auks, and guillemots, lay only one egg a-piece; the eggs of the two laft are of a fize ftrangely large in propor tion to the bulk of the birds. They are commonly of a pale green colour, fpotted, and striped fo variously, that not two are alike; which gives every individual the means of diftinguishing its own on the naked rock where such multitudes affemble. Divers lay only two. Terns and gulls lay about three eggs, of a dirty olive, spotted with black. Ducks lay from 8 to 20 eggs; the eggs of all the genus are of a pale green, or white, and unfpotted. Pinguins probably lay but one egg.

Of the pelican genus, the gannet lays but one egg; the fhags or corvorants, fix or feven, all white; the laft the moft oblong of eggs.

A minute account of the eggs of birds might occupy a treatise of itself. This is only meant to fhow the great conformity in the shape and colours of congenerous birds; and that the fame uniformity of colour is in the eggs as in the plumage of the birds they belong to.

ZINANNI publifhed, at Venice, in 1737, 4 Treatife on Eggs, illuftrated with accurate figures of 106 eggs. Mr Reyger of Dantzic publifhed, in 1766, a pofthumous work by Klein, with 21 plates, elegantly coloured; but much remains for future writers.

SECT. IV. Of SYSTEMS of ORNITHOLOGY. CONSIDERING the many fyftems that have been offered to the public of late years, Mr Pennant VOL. XVI. PART II.

gives the preference to that compofed by Mr Ray, in 1667, and afterwards published in 1678; but obferves, at the fame time, that it would be unfair to conceal the writer from whom our great countryman took the original hint of forming that fyftem, which has proved the foundation of all that has been compofed fince that period.

BELON of Mans, who first attempted to range birds according to their natures, was a Frenchman; and performed great matters, confidering the unenlightened age he lived in; for his book was published in 1555. His arrangement of rapacious birds is as judicious as that of the latest writers. His ad chapter treats of vultures, falcons, fhrikes, and owls; in the two next he paffes over to the web-footed water fowls, and to the clovenfooted; in the 5th he includes the gallinaceous and ftruthious, but mixes with them the plovers, buntings, and larks; in the 6th are the pies, pigeons, and thrushes; and the 7th takes in the reft of the pasferine order.

Notwithstanding the great defects that every naturalist will at once fee in the arrangement of the leffer birds of this writer, yet he will obferve a rectitude of intention in general, and a fine notion of system, which was left to the following age to mature and bring to perfection. Accordingly Mr RAY and his illuftrious pupil Francis Willoughby affumed the plan; but with great judgment flung into their proper stations and proper genera those which Belon had confufedly mixed together. They formed the great divifion of terrestrial and aquatic birds; they made every species occupy their proper place, confulting at once exterior form and natural habit. They could not bear the intermixture of aquatic birds with terreftrial. They placed the laft by themselves; clear and diftinct from thofe whofe haunts and economy were fo different.

"

The fubjoined scheme of arrangement by Mr Pennant, is introduced with the following obfervations.

"Mr Ray's general plan is so judicious, that to me it seems scarce poffible to make any change in it for the better; yet, notwithstanding he was in a manner the founder of fyftematic zoology, later difcoveries have made a few improvements on his labours. My candid friend Linnæus did not take it amifs, that I, in part, neglect his example; for I permit the land fowl to follow one another, undivided by the water fowl, the grallæ, and anferes of his fyftem, (fee ZOOLOGY); but, in my generical arrangement, I most punctually attend to the order he has given in his feveral divifions, except in thofe of his anferes and a few of his gralla. For, after the manner of Mr Brisson, I make a distinct order of water fowl with pinnated feet, placing them between the waders or cloven-footed water fowl and the web-footed. The oftrich and land-birds with wings ufelefs for flight, I place as a diftin&t order. The trumpeter ( phia Linnai), and the buftards, I place at the end of the gallinaceous tribe; the laft granivorous, fwift runners, avoiders of wet places; and both have bills fomewhat arched. It must be confefled, that both have legs naked above the knees, and the laft, like the waders, lay but few eggs. They feem Uuu ambiguous