columns which have one of their volutes placed at an angle of 135° with the planes of the front and returning frieze. As an example may be given the angle capitals of the temple of Minerva Polias at Athens. This term is also applied to the modern Ionic capital, in which the whole of the four volutes have an angular direction. ANGLE CHIMNEY. A chimney placed in the angle of a room.

ANGLE MODILLION. A modillion placed in a direction parallel to a diagonal drawn through a cornice at its mitring. It is an abuse seen only in the buildings erected during the decline of Roman architecture, as in the ruins of Balbec and Palmyra, and in the palace of the Emperor Dioclesian at Spalatro.

ANGLE OF VISION. (See PERSPECTIVE, p. 649, et seq.) The angle under which an object or objects are seen, and upon which their apparent magnitudes depend. In practical perspective it should not exceed sixty degrees.

ANGLE OF A WALL. The angle contained by the vertical planes of two walls which form the angle of the building. The term is sometimes used to denote the line in which the two sides of the angle meet, which by workmen is commonly called the arris: the arris however is not the angle, but the line of concourse formed by the two sides or planes which contain the angle.

ANGLE RAFTER. The piece of timber in a hipped roof placed in the line of concourse of the two inclined planes forming the hip. It is more often called a hip rafter. See HIP and CARPENTRY, page 548.

ANGLE RIB. A piece of timber of a curved form placed between those two parts of a coved or arched ceiling or vault which form an angle with each other so as to range with the common ribs on each side or return part.

ANGLE STAFF. See ANGLE BEAD.

ANGLE STONES. A term used by some authors to denote quoins.

ANGLE TIE. See ANGLE BRACE.

ANGULAR CAPITAL. See CAPITAL.

ANNUITIES. See p. 856, et seq.

ANNULAR MOULDINGS. Generally those having vertical sides and horizontal circular sections.

ANNULAR VAULT. A vault springing from two walls each circular on the plan; such as that in the temple of Bacchus at Rome.

ANNULET. (Lat. Annulus.) A small fillet whose horizontal section is circular. The neck or under side of the Doric capital is decorated with these thin fillets, listels, or bands, whose number varies in different examples. Thus in the Doric of the theatre of Marcellus there are three, whilst in the great temple at Pæstum they are four in number, and in other cases as many as five are used. ANTA, Æ, plur. (Lat. Anta.) The joints or square posts supporting the lintels of doors. The term ante we think only applicable to pilasters or pillars attached to a wall, though some authors, as Perault, have thought otherwise. Vitruvius calls square pilasters when insulated parastata. There are three kinds of antæ: those of porches or jamb ornaments; angular antæ, being such as show two faces on the walls of a temple; and those on the longitudinal walls of its cell. Antæ are only found in temples as wings to the ends of the walls of the pronaos to give a finish to the terminations the ends of the walls would otherwise present. It might have been this view which led the Greeks to treat them rather as distinct objects than to assimilate their finishings to those of columns. Considered as pilasters, the reader is referred to p. 735, et seq., where the diminutions and capitals are fully considered. The latter were never made by the Greeks like those of the accompanying columns. The pilasters in Roman architecture differ only from the column in being square instead of round. A rule in the use of antæ was, that their projection should always be equal to that at least of the mouldings used on them. Some beautiful examples of antæ capitals exist in the temple of Minerva Polias and the temple of Apollo Didymæus in Ionia.

ANTE-CHAMBER or ANTE-ROOM. An apartment through which access is obtained to another chamber or room. One in which servants wait and strangers are detained till the person to be spoken with is at leisure. In the distribution of many houses the peculiarity of the plan forces upon the architect the introduction of ante-rooms: in most cases, indeed, they add both elegance and dignity to a design.

ANTEPAGMENTA. (Lat.) In ancient architecture, the jambs or moulded architraves of a door. The lintel returning at the ends with similar mouldings down upon the antepagmenta was called supercilium.

ANTERIDES. In ancient architecture, buttresses or counterforts for the support of a wall. The Italians call them speroni (spurs).

ANTHEMIUS. See ARCHITECTS, list of, 61.

ANTE-COUR. A French term, sometimes however used by English authors. It is the approach to the principal court of a house, and very frequently serves for communication

ANTICUM. (Lat.) A porch to a front door, as distinguished from posticum, which is the porch to a door in the rear of a building. It was the space also between the front columns of the portico and the wall of the cellar. The word has been sometimes improperly used for anta.

ANTIFIXE. (Lat. anti and figo.) The ornaments of lions' and other heads below the eaves of a temple, through perforations in which, usually at the mouth, the water is cast away from the eaves. By some this term is used to denote the upright ornaments above the eaves in ancient architecture, which concealed the ends of the harmi or joint tiles. ANTIQUE. A term applied to pieces of ancient art by the Greeks and Romans of the classical age. ANTIQUARIUM. Among the ancients an apartment or cabinet in which they kept their ancient books and vases.

ANTISTATES. See ARCHITECTS, list of, 15.
ANTONINUS. See ARCHITECTS, list of, 50.
ANTONIO, FIORENTINO.
ANTOINE. See ARCHITECTS, list of, 306.

See ARCHITECTS, list of, 228.

APARTMENT. (Lat. partimentum.) A space enclosed by walls and a ceiling, which latter distinguishes it from a court or area. The distribution of apartments of a building has already been treated of in this work. See p. 771, et seq. APERTURE. (Lat. aperio.) An opening through any body. In a wall it has usually three straight sides, two whereof are perpendicular to the horizon, and the third parallel to it, connecting the lower ends of the vertical sides. The materials forming the vertical sides are called jambs, and the lower level side is called the sill, and the upper part the head. This last is either a curved or flat arch. Apertures are made for entrance, light, or ornament. In Greek and Egyptian architecture, but especially in the latter, the jambs incline towards each other. Sometimes apertures are made circular, elliptical, or portions of those figures. Apertures," says Sir Henry Wotton, "are inlets for air and light; they should be as few in number, and as moderate in dimensions, as may possibly consist with other due respects; for, in a word, all opening are weakenings. They should not approach too near the angles of the walls; for it were indeed a most essential solecism to weaken that part which must strengthen all the rest.”

APIARY. (Lat. apis.) A place for keeping beehives. Sometimes this is a small house with openings for the bees in front, and a door behind, which is kept locked for security. Sometimes it is an area wherein each particular beehive is chained down to a post and padlocked.

APODYTERIUM. (àñoôvodai, Gr., to strip oneself.) The apartment at the entrance of the ancient baths, or in the Palæstra, where a person took off his dress, whether for bathing or gymnastic exercises. In the baths of Nero, these apartments were small, but in those of Caracalla the apodyterium was a magnificent room with columns and other decorations.'

APOPHYGE. (Gr., signifying flight.) That part of a column between the upper fillet or amulet on the base and the cylindrical part of the shaft of a column, usually moulded into a hollow or cavetto, out of which the column seems as it were to fly or escape upwards. The French call it congé, as it were, leave to go. APOLLODORUS. See ARCHITECTS, list of, 47.

APOTHECA. (Gr.) A storehouse or cellar in which the ancient Greeks deposited their oil, wine, and the like.

APRON, OF PITCHING PIECE. An horizontal piece of timber, in wooden double-flighted stairs, for supporting the carriage pieces or rough strings and joistings in the half spaces or landings. The apron pieces should be firmly wedged into the wall. See STAIRCASES, p. 575, et seq.

APSIS, or ABSIS. (Gr., signifying an arch.) A term in ecclesiastical architecture, denoting that part of the church wherein the clergy was seated or the altar placed. It was so called from being usually domed or vaulted, and not, as Isidorus imagines, from being the lightest part (apta). The apsis was either circular or polygonal, and domed over; it consisted of two parts, the altar and the presbytery or sanctuary. At the middle of the semicircle was the throne of the bishop, and at the centre of the diameter was placed the altar, towards the nave, from which it was separated by an open balustrade or railing. On the altar was placed the ciborium and cup. The throne of the bishop having been anciently called by this name, some have thought that thence this part of the edifice derived its name; but the converse is the fact. The apsis gradata implied more parti cularly the bishop's throne being raised by steps above the ordinary stalls. This was sometimes called exedra, and in later times tribune.

AQUEDUCT. (Lat. aquæ ductus.) A conduit or channel for conveying water from one place to another, more particularly applied to structures for the purpose of conveying the water of distant springs across valleys, for the supply of large cities. The largest and most magnificent aqueducts with the existence of which we are acquainted were constructed by

the Romans, and many of their ruins in Italy and other countries of Europe still attest the power and industry of that extraordinary nation. The most ancient was that of Appius Claudius, which was erected in the 442d year of the city, and conveyed the Aqua Appia to Rome, from a distance of 11,190 Roman paces (a pace being 58-219 English inches), and was carried along the ground, or by subterranean lines, about 11,000 paces, about 190 of which were erected on arches. The next, in order of time, was the Anio Vetus, begun by M. Curius Dentatus, about the year of Rome 481. The water was collected from the springs about Tivoli; it was about 43,000 paces in length. In the 608th year of the city, the works of the Anio Vetus and Aqua Appia had fallen into decay, and much of the water had been fraudulently abstracted by individuals, the prætor Martius was therefore empowered to take measures for increasing the supply. The result of this was the Aqua Martia, the most wholesome water with which Rome was supplied. It was brought from the neighbourhood of Subiaco, twenty miles above Tivoli, and was 61,710 Roman paces (about 61 miles), whereof 7463 paces were above ground, and the remainder under ground. A length of 463 paces, where it crossed brook and valleys, was supported on arches. To supply this in dry seasons, was conducted into it another stream of equal goodness by an aqueduct 800 paces long. About nineteen years after this was completed, the Aqua Tepula was brought in, supplied also from the Anio; but not more than 2000 paces in length. In the reign of Augustus, Agrippa collected some more springs into the Aqua Tepula, but the latter water flowing in a separate channel, it preserved its name. This was 15,426 paces long, 7000 above ground, and the remainder of the length on arcades. To this was given by Agrippa the name of Aqua Julia. In the year 719 of the city, Agrippa restored the dilapidated aqueducts of Appius, of Martius, and of the Anio Vetus, at his own expense, besides erecting fountains in the city. The Aqua Virgo, which received its name from a girl having pointed out to some soldiers the sources of the stream from which it was collected, was brought to Rome by an aqueduct 14,105 paces in length, 12,865 whereof were under ground, and 700 on arches, the remainder being above ground. The Aqua Alsietina, called also Augusta, was 22,172 paces from its source to the city, and 358 paces of it were on arcades. The seven aqueducts above mentioned being found, in the time of Caligula, unequal to the supply of the city, this emperor, in the second year of his reign, began two others, which were finished by Claudius, and opened in the year of the city 803. The first was called Aqua Claudia, and the second Anio Novus, to distinguish it from one heretofore mentioned. The first was 46,406 Roman paces, of which 10,176 were on arcades, and the rest subterranean. The Anio Novus was 58,700 paces in length, 9400 whereof were above ground, 6491 on arches, and the rest subterranean. Some of the arches of these are 100 Roman feet high. All the aqueducts we have mentioned were on different levels, and distributed accordingly. to those parts of the city which suited their respective elevations. The following is the order of their heights, the highest being the Anio Novus, 159 feet above level of Tiber : Aqua Claudia, 149 feet; Aqua Julia, 129 feet; Aqua Tepula, Aqua Martia, 125 feet; Anio Vetus, Aqua Virgo, 34 feet; Aqua Appia, 27 feet; and the Aqua Alsietina on the lowest level. The Tiber at Rome being 915 feet above the level of the Mediterranean, the mean fall of these aqueducts has been ascertained to be about 0·132 English inches for each Roman pace (58-219 English inches), or 1 in 441. Vitruvius directs a fall of 1 in 200, but Scamozzi says the practice of the Romans was 1 in 500. The quantity of water furnished by six of the aqueducts, as given by Frontinus from a measurement at the head of each aqueduct, is as follows:

The whole supply is given as 14,018 quinariæ, after much fraudulent diversion of the water by individuals; but the diminished quantity is supposed to have been 27,743,100 English cubic feet, or, estimating the population of Rome at one million of inhabitants, 27 74 cubic feet per diem for each inhabitant.

The aqueducts required constant repairs, from the nature of their construction, especially those on arches. The spaces between the piers varied much in width, and necessarily in height. Some of the arcades are as much as 27 feet in diameter.

There are remains of Roman aqueducts in other parts of Europe, even more magnificent than those we have mentioned. One, or the ruins of one, still exists at Metz, and another at Segovia in Spain, with two rows of arcades, one above the other. This last is about 100 feet high, and passes over the greater part of the houses of the city. The most remarkable aqueduct of modern times was that constructed by the order of Louis XIV. for conveying the waters of the Eure to Versailles. It is 4400 feet in length, and

contains 242 arcades, each of 50 feet span. The introduction of cast iron pipes has now superseded the erection of these expensive structures.

ARABESQUE. A building after the Arabian style. See Moresque and Saracenic Architecture, pp. 50, et seq. The term is more commonly used to denote that sort of ornament in Moresque architecture consisting of intricate rectilinear and curvilinear compartments and mosaics which adorn the walls, pavements, and ceilings of Arabian and Saracenic buildings. It is capricious, fantastic, and imaginative, consisting of fruits, flowers, and other objects, to the exclusion in pure arabesques of the figures of animals, which the religion forbade. This sort of ornament, however, did not originate with the Arabians; it was understood and practised by the ancients at a very early period. Foliage and griffins, with ornaments not very dissimilar to those of the Arabians, were frequently employed on the friezes of temples, and on many of the ancient Greek vases, on the walls of the baths of Titus at Pompeii, and at many other places. To Raffaele, in more modern times, we are indebted for the most elaborate and beautiful examples of the style, which he even dignified, and left nothing to be desired in it. Since the time of that master it has been practised with varying and inferior degrees of merit, especially by the French in the time of Louis XVI. Arabesques lose their character when applied to large objects, neither should they be employed where gravity in the style is to be preserved. ARABO-TEDESCO. (It. Arabo; and Tedesco, German.) A style consisting of a mixture of Moorish or Low Grecian with German Gothic. It is a term used chiefly by the Italians. An example of this style may be quoted in the baptistery at Pisa (fig. 152.), erected by Dioti Salvi in 1152. It is a circular edifice, with an arcade in the second order composed of columns with Corinthian capitals and plain round arches. Between each arch rises a Gothic pinnacle, and above it is finished by sharp pediments enriched with foliage, terminating in a trefoil. See Byzantine and Romanesque Architecture, p. 107, et seq. ARÆOSTYLE. (Gr. apatos, wide, and σrvλos, column.) One of the five proportions used by the ancients for regulating the intercolumniations or intervals between the columns in porticoes and colonnades. Vitruvius does not determine precisely its measure in terms of the diameter of the column. His commentators have tried to supply the de. ficiency; and, following the progression observable in the intercolumniations he does describe, each of which increases by a semidiameter, the aræostyle would be three diameters and a half. Perrault, in his translation of Vitruvius, proposes that the interval be made equal to four diameters, which is the interval now usually assigned to it. It is only, or rather ought only, to be used with the Tuscan order. AREOSYSTYLE. (Gr. apaios, wide, σvv, with, σrvλos, a column.) A term used by the French architects to denote the method of proportioning the intervals between columns coupled or ranged in pairs, as invented by Perrault, and introduced in the principal façade of the Louvre. It was also adopted by Sir Christopher Wren in the west front of St. Paul's.

ARC.

In geometry, a portion of a circle or other curve line. The arc of a circle is the measure of the angle formed by two straight lines drawn from its extremities to the centre of the circle.

ARC-BOUTANT. (Fr.) An arch-formed buttress, much employed in sacred edifices built in the pointed style, as also in other edifices, and commonly called a flying buttress, whose object is to counteract the thrust of the main vault of the edifice: it is also called arched buttress and arched butment. It is no invention of the moderns, as the use of it is found in the baths of Dioclesian.

ARC DOUBLEAU. (Fr.) An arch forming a projection before the sofite of a main arch or vault, in the same manner as a pilaster breaks before the face of a wall. ARCADE. (Fr.) A series of apertures or recesses with arched ceilings or sofites. But the word is often vaguely and indefinitely used. Some so designate a single-arched aper ture or enclosure, which is more properly a vault; others for the space covered by a continued vault or arch supported on piers or columns; and, besides these, other false meanings are given to it instead of that which we have assigned. Behind the arcade is generally a walk or ambulatory, as in Covent Garden, where the term piazza is ignorantly applied to the walks under the arcade instead of to the whole place (piazza) or square. The piers of arcades may be decorated with columns, pilasters, niches, and apertures of different forms. The arches themselves are sometimes turned with rock-worked, and at other times with plain rustic arch stones or voussoirs, or with a moulded archivolt, springing from an impost or platband; and sometimes, though a practice not to be recommended, from columns. The keystones are generally curved in the form of a console, or sculptured with some device. Scamozzi made the size of his piers less, and varied his imposts or archivolts in proportion to the delicacy of the orders he employed; but Vignola made his piers always of the same proportion. See Book III. Chap. I. Sect. 10., and Book III. Chap. I. Sect. 12.

ARCA. In ancient Roman architecture, the gutters of the cavedium; arca signifying a beam of wood with a groove or channel in it.

ARCELLA. (Lat.) In mediæval architecture, a cheese room.

Авсн. A mechanical arrangement of blocks of any hard material disposed in the line of some curve, and supporting one another by their mutual pressure. The arch itself is formed of voussoirs or arch stones cut in the shape of a truncated wedge, the uppermost whereof is called the keystone. The seams or planes, in which two adjacent voussoirs are united, are called the joints. The solid extremities on or against which the arch rests are called the abutments. The lower or under line of each arch stone is called the intrados, and the superior or upper line the extrados. The distance between the piers or abutments is the span of the arch, and that from the level line of the springing to the intrados its height. The subject of arches forms Sect. 9. Book II. Chap. I. of this work, to which the reader is referred for the theory and construction of the arch.

The forms of arches employed in the different styles of English architecture will be found described under the several heads. See p. 172, et seq.

ARCHIAS. See ARCHITECTs, list of, 17.

ARCHITECT. (Gr. apxos and TeкTwy, chief of the works.) A person competent to design and superintend the execution of any building. The knowledge he ought to possess forms the subject of this work; whatever more he may acquire will be for the advantage of his employers; and when we say that the whole of the elements which this work contains should be well known and understood by him, we mean it as a minimum of his qualifications. To this we may add, that with the possessions indicated, devotedness, faithfulness, and integrity towards his employer, with kindness and urbanity to those whose lot it is to execute his projects, not however without resolution to check the dishonesty of a builder, should he meet with such, will insure a brilliant and happy career in his profession. We here insert a

Brief Synoptical List of the principal Architects known in History, and their chief Works, from Milizia and other Authorities.

Propylea of the Parthenon.

A temple of Jupiter at Athens.

One side of the tomb of Mausolus; a column of the temple at Ephesus.