and, indeed, in most parts of the world. It is insoluble in water, but decomposed by heat, and sometimes used in masonry for the same purposes as limestone. CHAMBER. (Fr. Chambre.) Properly a room vaulted or arched, but the word is now generally used in a more restricted sense to signify an apartment appropriated to lodging. With the French the word has a much more extensive meaning; but with us the almost only use of it, beyond what is above stated, is as applied in a palace to the room in which the sovereign receives the subject, which room is called the Presence Chamber.

CHAMBER OF A LOCK. In canals the space between the gates in which the vessels rise and sink from one level to another, in order to pass the lock.

CHAMBER STORY. That story of a house appropriated for bed-rooms. In good houses it should never be less than ten feet high, in better houses from twelve feet to fifteen feet.

CHAMBERS. See ARCHITECTs, list of, 300.

CHAMBRANLE. (Fr.) An ornamental bordering on the sides and tops of doors, windows, and fireplaces. This ornament is generally taken from the architrave of the order of the building. In window frames the sill is also ornamental, forming a fourth side. The top of a three-sided chambranle is called the transverse, and the sides ascendants. CHAMFER. (Fr. Chamfrein.) The arris of anything originally right-angled cut a slope or bevel, so that the plane it then forms is inclined less than a right angle to the other planes with which it intersects.

CHAMPAIN LINE. In ornamental carved work formed of excavations is the line parallel to the continuous line, either ascending or descending.

CHANCEL. That part of the eastern end of a church in which the altar is placed. See CANCELLI. This is the strict meaning; but in many cases the chancel extends much further into the church, the original divisions having been removed for accommodating a larger congregation. The word is also used to denote a separate division of the ancient basilica, latticed off to separate the judges and council from the audience part of the place.

CHANDRY. An apartment in a palace or royal dwelling for depositing candles and other lights.

CHANNEL. (Fr. Canal.) A long gutter or canal sunk below the surface of a body.
CHANNEL OF THE LARMIER. See CANAL OF THE LARMIER,

CHANNEL OF THE VOLUTE. See CANAL OF THE VOLUTE.

CHANNEL STONES. In paving are those prepared for gutters or channels, serving to collect and run off the rain water with a current.

CHANTRY. (Lat. Cantaria.) A little chapel in ancient churches with an endowment for one or more priests to say mass for the release of souls out of purgatory. In the fourteenth year of Edward VI. all the chantries in England were dissolved: at this period there were no less than forty-seven attached to St. Paul's Cathedral.

CHAPEL. (Lat. Capella.) A building for religious worship, erected separately from a church, and served by a chaplain. In Catholic churches, and in cathedrals and abbey churches, chapels are usually annexed in the recesses on the sides of the aisles. These are also called chantries.

CHAPITER. The same as CAPITAL, which see.

CHAPLET. (Fr. Chapelet.) A moulding carved into beads, olives, and the like. See BAGUETTE.

CHAPTER HOUSE.

In ecclesiastical architecture the apartment (usually attached) of a cathedral or collegiate church in which the heads of the church or the chapter meet to transact business.

CHAPTREL. (Fr.) The same as IMPOST, which see.

CHARGED. A term used to denote that one member of a piece of architecture is sustained by another. A frieze is said to be charged with the ornament cut on it. CHARNEL HOUSE. A place where the bones of the dead are deposited.

CHARTOPHYLACIUM.

writings.

A recess or apartment for the preservation of records or valuable

CHASE. An upright indent cut in a wall for the joining another to it, so as to hide light and exclude air.

CHASE MORTISE, or PULLEY MORTISE. A long mortise cut lengthwise in one of a pair of parallel timbers, for the insertion of one end of a transverse timber, by making the latter revolve round a centre at the other end, which is fixed in the other parallel timber. This may be exemplified in ceiling joists where the binding joists are the parallel timbers first fixed, and the ceiling are the transverse joists. See PRACTICAL CARPENTRY, in the body of the work.

CHEEKS. Two upright, equal, and similar parts of any piece of timber-work. Such, for instance, as the sides of a dormer window.

CHEEKS OF A MORTISE are the two solid parts upon the sides of the mortise. The thick

The

ness of each cheek should not be less than the thickness of the mortise, except mouldings on the stiles absolutely require it to be otherwise. CHEESE ROOM. A room set apart for the reception of cheeses after they are made. walls should be lined, and fitted up with shelves with one or more stages, according to the size of the room, and proper gangways for commodious passage. In places where much cheese is manufactured, the dairy-room may be placed below, the shelf-room directly above, and lofts may be built over the shelf-room, with trap doors through each floor. This will save much carriage, and will be found advantageous for drying the cheeses.

CHEQUERS. In masonry, are stones in the facings of walls, which have all their thin joints continued in straight lines, without interruption or breaking joints. Walls built in this manner are of the very worst description; particularly when the joints are made horizontal and vertical. Those which consist of diagonal joints, or joints inclined to the horizon, were used by the Romans.

CHESNUT OF CHESTNUT. The fagus castanea. A forest tree used in building. See p. 483. CHEST. The same as caisson, which see.

CHEVRON WORK. A zigzag ornament used in the archivolts of Saxon and Norman arches (see fig. 188.). The outline of chevron work is a conjunction of right lines of equal lengths alternately disposed so as to form exterior and interior angles, and at the same time having all the angular points in the same straight line, or in the same curve line when the chevron work is used for ornamenting arches.

CHICHELE. See ARCHITECTs, list of, 146.

CHIMNEY. (Fr. Cheminée.) The place in a room where a fire is burnt, and from which the smoke is carried away by means of a conduit, called a flue. Chimneys are usually made by a projection from a wall, and recess in the same from the floor ascending within the limits of the projection and the recess. That part of the opening which faces the room is properly called the fireplace, the stone or marble under which is called the hearth. That on a level with and in front of it is called the slab. The vertical sides of the opening are called jambs. The head of the fore-plate resting on the jambs is called the mantel, and the cavity or hollow from the fireplace to the top of the room is called the funnel. The part of the funnel which contracts as it ascends is termed the gathering, by some the gathering of the wings. The tube or cavity, of a parallelogrammatic form, on the place from where the gathering ceases, up to the top of the chimney, is called the flue. The part between the gathering and the flue is called the throat. The part of the wall facing the room, and forming one side of the funnel parallel thereto, or the part of the wall forming the sides of the funnels where there are more than one, is the breast. In external walls, that side of the funnel opposite the breast is called the back. When there is more than one chimney in the same wall, the solid parts that divide them are called withs: and when several chimneys are collected into one mass, it is called a stack of chimneys. The part which rises above the roof, for discharging the smoke into the air, is called a chimney shaft, whose horizontal upper surface is termed the chimney-top.

The covings were formerly placed at right angles to the face of the wall, and the chimney was finished in that manner; but Count Rumford showed that more heat is obtained from the fire by reflection when the covings are placed in an oblique position. He likewise directed that the fire itself should be kept as near to the hearth as possible, and that the throat of the chimney should be constructed much narrower than had been practised, with the view of preventing the escape of so much heated air as happened with wide throats. If the throat be too near the fire, the draught will be too strong, and the fuel will be wasted; if it be too high up, the draught will be too languid, and there will be a danger of the smoke being occasionally beat back into the room. CHIMNEY PIECE. See Book III. Chap. I. Sect. 22.

CHINESE ARCHITECTURE. See Book I. Chap. II. Sect. 8.

CHIP.

A piece of any material cut by an acute-angled instrument. CHIROSOPHUS. See ARCHITECTS, list of, 7.

CHISEL. An instrument used in masonry, carpentry, and joinery, and also by carvers and statuaries, for cutting either by pressure or by impulse from the blows of a mallet or hammer. There are various kinds of chisels; the principal ones used in carpentry and joinery are the former, the paring chisel, the gouge, the mortise chisel, the socket chisel, and the ripping chisel.

CHISELED WORK. In masonry, the state of stones whose surface is formed by the chisel. CHIT. An instrument used for cleaving laths.

CHOIR. (Gr. Xopos.) The part of a church in which the choristers sing divine service. In former times it was raised separate from the altar, with a pulpit on each side, in which the epistles and gospels were recited, as is still the case in several churches on the Continent. It was separated from the nave in the time of Constantine. In nunneries, the choir is a large apartment, separated by a grate from the body of the church, where the nuns chaunt the service.

CHORAGIC MONUMENT. (Gr. Xopos.) In Grecian architecture, a monument erected in honour of the choragus who gained the prize by the exhibition of the best musical or theatrical entertainment at the festivals of Bacchus. The choragi were the heads of the ten tribes at Athens, who overlooked and arranged the games at their own expense. The prize was usually a tripod, which the victor was bound publicly to exhibit, for which purpose a building or column was usually erected. The remains of two very fine monuments of this sort, viz. of Lysicrates and Thrasyllus, are still to be seen at Athens. See p.69.

CHORD. In geometry, the straight line which joins the two extremities of the arc of a curve; so called from the resemblance which the arc and chord together have to a bow and its string, the chord representing the string.

CHRISMAS. See ARCHITECTS, list of, 263.

CHRISTOBOLO. See ARCHITECTS, list of, 154.
CHRYSES. See ARCHITECTS, list of, 63.

CHURCH. (Gr. Kuрiakov, from Kupios, Lord.) A building dedicated to the performance of Christian worship. For the general principles on which churches are to be designed see Book III. Chap. III. Sect. 3., also in Book I. Chap. II. Sect. 14. From these latter it will be seen that the basilica were the first buildings used for the assembly of the early Christians. Among the first of the churches was that of St. Peter at Rome, about the year 326, nearly on the site of the present church; and it is supposed that the first church of St. Sophia at Constantinople was built somewhat on its model. That which was afterwards erected by Justinian seems, in its turn, to have afforded the model of St. Mark's at Venice, which was the first in Italy constructed with pendentives and a dome, the former affording the means of covering a square plan with an hemispherical vault. The four most celebrated churches in Europe erected since the revival of the arts are, St. Peter's at Rome, which stands on an area of 227,069 feet superficial; Sta. Maria del Fiore at Florence, standing on 84,802 feet; St. Paul's, London, which stands on 84,025 feet, and St. Geneviève at Paris, 60,287 feet. The churches on the Continent

are usually ranged under seven classes: pontifical, as St. Peter's, where the pope occasionally officiates; patriarchal, where the government is in a patriarch; metropolitan, where an archbishop is the head; cathedral, where a bishop presides; collegiate, when attached to a college; parochial, attached to a parish; and conventual when belonging to a convent. In this country the churches are cathedral, abbey, and parochial.

CIBORIUM. (KI6wpiov.) An insulated erection open on each side with arches, and having a dome of ogee form carried or supported by four columns. It is also the coffer or case in which the host is deposited.

CICCIONE. See ARCHITECTS, list of, 158.

CILERY. The drapery or foliage carved on the heads of columns.

CILL. (Sax. Cill.) The timber or stone at the foot of a door, &c.

Ground cills are the

timbers on the ground which support the posts and superstructure of a timber building. The name of cill is also given to the bottom pieces which support quarter and truss partitions.

CIMBIA. A fillet string, list, or cornice.

CIMELIARCH. A name given to the apartment where the plate and vestments are deposited in churches.

CINCTURE. The ring, list, or fillet at the top and bottom of a column, which divides the shaft of the column from its capital and base.

CINQUEFOIL. An ornament used in the pointed style of architecture; it consists of five cuspidated divisions or curved pendents inscribed in a pointed arch, or in a circular ring applied to windows and panels. The cinquefoil, when inscribed in a circle, forms a rosette of five equal leaves having an open space in the middle, the leaves being formed by the open spaces, and not by the solids or cusps.

CIONE DI ORGAGNA. See ARCHITECTs, list of, 144.

CIPPUS. A small low column, sometimes without a base or capital, and most frequently bearing an inscription. Among the ancients the cippus was used for various purposes; when placed on a road it indicated the distance of places; on other occasions cippi were employed as memorials of remarkable events, as landmarks, and for bearing sepulchral epitaphs.

CIRCLE. (Lat. Circulus.) A figure contained under one line called the circumference, to which all lines drawn from a certain point within it, called the centre, are equal. It is the most capacious of all plain figures.

CIRCULAR BUILDINGS. Such as are built upon a circular plan. When the interior also is circular, the building is called a rotunda,

CIRCULAR WORK. A term applied to any work with cylindric faces.

CIRCULAR CIRCULAR, or CYLINDRO-CYLINDRIC WORK. A term applied to any work which is formed by the intersection of two cylinders whose axes are not in the same direction.

The line formed by the intersection of the surfaces is termed, by mathematicians, a line of double curvature. CIRCULAR ROOFs.

Those whose horizontal sections are circular.

CIRCULAR WINDING STAIRS. Such as have a cylindric case or walled enclosure, with the planes of the risers of the steps tending towards the axis of the cylinder. CIRCUMFERENCE. The boundary lines of a circular body.

CIRCUMSCRIBE. (Verb.) To draw a line around a figure, or enclose it so that the enclosed shall be touched on all its angles or on its whole circumference by the line or body that encloses it.

CIRCUMVOLUTIONS. The turns in the spiral of the Ionic capital, which are usually three, but there are four in the capitals of the temple of Minerva Polias. CIRCUS. (Lat.) In ancient architecture, a straight, long, narrow building, whose length to its breadth was generally as 5 to 1. It was divided down the centre by an ornamented barrier called the spina, and was used by the Romans for the exhibition of public spectacles and chariot races. Several existed at Rome, whereof the most celebrated was the Circus Maximus. Julius Cæsar improved and altered the Circus Maximus, and that it might serve for the purpose of a naumachia, supplied it with water. Augustus added to it the celebrated obelisk now standing in the Piazza del Popolo. Of this circus no vestiges remain. Besides these at Rome were the circi of Flaminius, near the Pantheon; Agonalis, occupying the site of what is now called the Piazza Navona; of Nero, on a portion whereof St. Peter's stands. Those of Antoninus and Aurelian, no longer even in ruins; but that of Caracalla, which was 738 feet in length, is at the present time sufficiently perfect to exhibit its plan and distribution in the most satisfactory manner. The spectacles of the circus were called the Circensian Games, and consisted of chariot and horse races, of both whereof the Romans were passionately fond, but particularly of the former, which in the times of the emperors excited so great an interest, as to divide the whole population of the city into factions, distinguished by the colours worn by the different charioteers. The disputes of these factions often led to serious disturbances.

CISSOID. In geometry a curved line invented by Diocles. Its name is derived from Kσos, ivy, from the curve appearing to mount along its assymptote, as ivy climbs on the trunk of a tree. The curve consists of two infinite branches above and below the diameter of a circle, at one of whose ends a tangent being drawn, the curve approaches the tangent without ever meeting it. The curve was invented by its author with a view to the solution of the famous problem of the duplication of the cube, or the insertion of two mean proportionals between two given straight lines. Its mechanical construction may

be found in Newton's Arithmetica Universalis.

CIST. (Gr. Korn, a chest.) A term used to denominate the mystic baskets used in processions connected with the Eleusinian mysteries. It was originally formed of wicker work, and when afterwards made of metal, the form and texture were preserved in imitation of the original material. When sculptured on ancient monuments, it indicates some connection with the mysteries of Ceres and Bacchus.

CISTERN. (Gr. Korn.) A reservoir for water, whether sunk below or formed of planks of wood above ground. In the construction of an earthen cistern, a well-tempered stratum of clay must be laid as a foundation for a brick flooring, and the bricks laid in terras mortar of Parker's cement. The sides must be built with the same materials; and if in a cellar or other place near a wall a space must be filled with clay, from the foundation to the top of the cistern contiguous to the wall, by which means it will be preserved from injury. Cisterns above ground are usually formed of wooden planks and carried by bearers; but the cistern formed of slates, now much used, is the best for adoption.

CIVIL ARCHITECTURE. The art of erecting every species of edifice destined for the use of man, the several matters necessary to the knowledge whereof forms the subject of this work.

CIVIC CROWN. A garland of oak leaves and acorns, often used as an architectural or

nament.

CLAMP. In brick-making a large mass of bricks generally quadrangular on the plan, and six, seven, or eight feet high, arranged in the brick field for burning, which is effected by flues prepared in stocking the clamp, and breeze or cinders laid between each course of bricks. See Book II. Chap. II. sect 9.

CLAMP. In carpentry and joinery is a piece of wood fixed to another with a mortise and tenon, or a groove and tongue, so that the fibres of the piece thus fixed cross those of the other, and thereby prevent it from casting or warping.

CLAMP NAILS, See NAILS.

CLASP NAILS. See NAILS.

CLATHRI. In ancient Roman architecture, were bars of iron or wood which were used to secure doors or windows.

CLAY. In ordinary language, any earth which possesses sufficient ductility to admit of being kneaded with water. Common clays may be divided into three classes, viz. unctuous, meagre, and calcareous. Of these the first is chiefly used in pottery, and the second and third are employed in the manufacture of bricks and tiles.

CLAYING. The operation of spreading two or three coats of clay for the purpose of keeping water in a vessel. This operation is also called puddling.

CLEAM.
CLEAR.

A term used in some places with the same signification as to stick or to glue. The nett distance between two bodies, where no other intervenes, or between their nearest surfaces. CLEAR STORY OF CLERE STORY. The upper vertical divisions of the nave, choir, and transepts of a church. It is clear above the roof of the aisles, whence it may have taken its name, but some have derived the name from the clair or light admitted through its tier of windows. Nearly all the cathedrals and large churches have clear stories, or tiers of arcades, and also of windows over the aisles and triforia. There is no triforium in the priory church of Bath, but a series of large and lofty windows constitute the clear story. The choir at Bristol Cathedral has neither triforium nor clear story. CLEATS. Small wooden projections in tackle to fasten the ropes to.

CLEAVING. The act of forcibly separating one part of a piece of wood or other matter from another in the direction of the fibres, either by pressure or by percussion with some wedge-formed instrument.

CLEFTS. The open cracks or fissures which appear in wood which has been wrought too green. The carpenter usually fills up these cracks with a mixture of gum and sawdust, but the neatest way is to soak both sides well with the fat of beef broth, and then dip pieces of sponge into the broth and fill up the cracks with them; they swell out so as to fill the whole crack, and so neatly as to be scarcely distinguishable. CLEOMENES. See ARCHITECTS, list of, 21.

CLEOPATRA'S NEEDLES. A name given to two obelisks on the east of the palace at Alexandria. They are of Thebaic stone and covered with hieroglyphics.

One has been thrown down, broken, and lies buried in the sand. The other stands on a pedestal. They were each of a single stone, about sixty feet high and seven feet square. CLEPSYDRA. (Gr. from KλжTw, to conceal, and 'Tôwp, water). A water clock, or vessel for measuring time by the running out of a certain quantity of water, or sometimes of sand, through an orifice of a determinate magnitude. Clepsydras were first used in Egypt under the Ptolemies; they seem to have been common in Rome, though they were chiefly employed in winter. In the summer season sundials were used.

CLINCHING. The act of binding and driving backward with a hammer the pointed end of a nail after its penetration through a piece of wood.

CLINKERS. Bricks impregnated with nitre and more thoroughly burnt by being nearer the fire in the kiln. See p. 504.

CLOACE. The name given to the common sewers of ancient Rome for carrying off into the Tiber the filth of the city. The chief of these, called the Cloaca Maxima, was built by the first Tarquin of huge blocks of stone joined together without cement. It consisted of three rows of arches one above another, which at length conjoin and unite together. It began in the Forum Romanum, was 300 paces long, and entered the Tiber between the temple of Vesta and the Pons Senatorius. There were as many principal sewers as there were hills in the city.

CLOAK-PINS AND RAIL. A piece of wood attached to a wall, furnished with projecting pegs on which to hang hats, great-coats, &c. The pegs are called cloakpins, and the board into which they are fixed, and which is fastened to the wall, is called the rail. CLOISTER. (Lat. Claustrum.) The square space attached to a regular monastery or large church with a peristyle or ambulatory round, usually with a covered range of building over. The cloister is perhaps, ex vi termini, the central square shut in or closed by the surrounding buildings. Cloisters are usually square on the plan, having a plain wall on one side, a series of windows between the piers or columns on the opposite side, and arched over with a vaulted or ribbed ceiling. It mostly forms part of the passage of communication from the church to the chapter house, refectory, and other parts of the establishment. In England all the cathedrals, and most of the collegiate churches and abbeys, were provided with cloisters. On the Continent they are commonly appended to large monasteries, and are often decorated with tombs and paintings in fresco.

A common appendage to a cloister was a lavatory, or stone trough for water, at which the monks washed their hands previous to entering the refectory. CLOSER. The last stone in the horizontal length of a wall, which is of less dimensions than the rest to close the row. Closers in brickwork, or pieces of bricks (or bats), less or greater than half a brick, that are used to close in the end of a course of brickwork. In English as well as Flemish bond, the length of a brick being but nine inches, and its width four inches and a half, in order that the vertical joints may be broken at the end of the first stretcher, a quarter brick (or bat) must be interposed to preserve the con