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tubular pieces will now need careful anneal-without allowing any loss of heat, except
ing. One is fixed in a jaw-chuck or in a what is unavoidable. A whiff of cold air on
wood-chuck, and the slide-rest is set over to the hot steel whilst passing from the fire to
turn a taper to suit the spindle-bearings. the water may cause great distortion in the
The amount of taper suited for these conical collar.
bearings is about 1° from the axis; that
is, the slide is set over 13° from parallel,
and the cone includes 3° between its sides.
By means of an inside tool, the collar is
bored out conical, and to suit the size of the
spindle-neck. The other piece is treated by
the same processes, and bored to suit the
other neck of the spindle; neither being
bored quite to full-size, allowance being
made for grinding, and the front collar
is coned at it largest end to 45° to receive
the abrupt cone forming the shoulder behind
the nose of the spindle as shown in the
drawings.

The outsides of the collars are next turned true and to form. They may be conveniently chucked on metal arbors turned to suitable diameters and tapering the required amount. The collars are turned true on their ends and made to suitable length, their external diameters being made to correspond with the bore in the ends of the shank. Both collars are straight, though each should be very slightly tapered to assist when arriving into the shank. In hardening, usually the collars will be somewhat enlarged, and this enlargement should be reckoned upon. The inner ends should have their corners well rounded, or it may prove impossible to drive in the

collars.

Each collar is next to be chucked carefully by its outside, so that it is not distorted, and a wood-chuck is perhaps the best to use for this purpose. The inside of each collar is now to be ground smooth and true; if necessary a light cut may be taken with a sliderest tool. A lead grinder supplied with coarse emery is the best to use. A short cylinder of lead can be cast on the end of a metal rod, and then turned to match the taper and diameter of the collar bore. Coarse emery with oil will soon remove the marks of the turning-tool. When both collars have been ground out, the oil-holes are to be drilled in them, and these are to be well countersunk from the outside. The inside must be carefully freed from the burr resulting from drilling, and may be slightly countersunk with that object. If a smooth half-round file is used to remove the burr and a slight hollow groove is made near the hole, it will help to conduct the oil along the bearing. In the front collar it is well to file a shallow channel towards the front end, so as to give a conduit for the oil to lubricate the second cone. The back collar may be similarly treated to conduct the oil to its back end, which should be made quite flat and smooth. A superfine-cut file will do for making the back end flat, and a piece of fine emery-paper laid on a flat surface will do the final smoothing. A steel ring, in the pulley on the tail end of the spindle, will bear against this flat end of the back collar.

Hardening the collars is the next process. Through being thin they will not need very great heat, but they will need very great care to make the process satisfactory. Evenness in the heating is a point for great attention. If the annealing process has not been carried through properly, the collars will probably crack or split in hardening. If heated more in one place than in others, the collars will probably go out of round in hardening. The heat should be regulated to suit the piece to be heated, and it should be applied equally all round. The steel should bo well coated with common yellow soap before putting it in the fire. Unless the heat is excessive, the steel should be allowed to soak in it for a while, as this will help to equalise the temperature all through. When fully hot all over and all through, the collar should be dropped into water. The removal from the fire to the water should be done

On removing the collars from the water after they are thoroughly cooled, make sure that the process of hardening has been entirely successful by testing with a file at several parts. Also examine the collars for cracks or any other defects: they almost surely have become somewhat elliptical in form. They are made round again by grinding, and the amount by which the collar differs from a true circle must not, of course, exceed the amount by which it exceeds the finishing size, or the process of grinding it true will reduce it below usable size.

For grinding the hardened collars, both inside and out, a revolving lap is the best appliance to use. It is, however, quite possible to do this grinding with coarse emery and oil applied by means of a lead or copper tool. For the outside the tool may be a plain bar fixed in the slide-rest and used like an ordinary tool. For the inside a plug of lead or copper turned to the required cone is used. The shaping of hardened steel by means of abradents is a very interesting subject, which has had but scant attention at the hands of writers on workshop practice. Considerations of speed and feed, rate of cutting, &c., are beyond this present paper. The inside is ground out first truly round, and tapering as previously described. The outside is reduced sufficiently to enter its recess in the shank, yet leaving it sufficiently large to hold firmly when forced home. Before putting the collars in their places, the oil holes must have been marked in the shank and drilled through, and all burr removed from the inside as previously mentioned. When the collars are inserted, due attention must be paid to the relative positions of the oil-holes in the shank and those in the collars; but when these latter have been countersunk at a wide angle there is no difficulty in getting them sufficiently opposite. The collars do not need any tempering. The shank should have its end heated to expand the bore, and so facilitate the admission of the collar. Boiling water temperature is sufficient, but the shank may be made red hot, and the collar put in just as the redness is disappearing, provided the collar is stuffed tightly with cotton waste and kept cold with water.

To force the collars home, driving with a hammer is a plan often recommended; but it is better to use screw pressure, which can be applied in many ways. Hammering is likely to crack the hard collars, but if this method is adopted a heavy hammer should be used, and the collar protected by interposing a piece of brass; then strike firm, light blows. If a bolt is used to draw in the collars, it must be got quite ready for use before heating the shank, and the nut should run easily on the thread, so that no time may be lost unnecessarily, and the shank allowed to cool. Immediately that one collar is home, the front one should be put in first, cool the shank so that the temper of the collar will not be drawn. Then put in the back collar by similar means.

lathe, and a properly shaping-cutter tool will very quickly remove the surplus if the steel is properly annealed. When the spindle is turned to the required form, and nearly to the required size, it should be carefully reannealed, so as to relieve any tension that there may be in the material, and so give it a fair chance of hardening straight.

A long spindle, such as we have in hand, is a thing that needs a great deal of skill in annealing, hardening, and tempering. Working steel in the fire is always a risky operation in the hands of inexperienced people, and certainly a piece shaped like this spindle is even more than usually difficult to treat. If the spindle is carefully fitted up and ground in its collars unhardened, it will be quite a serviceable appliance. Any one who is very doubtful of the probable results of an attempt to harden the spindle may be advised to omit this process. Unhardened steel spindles are being used continuously, and are found to wear quite well, and a soft mandrel running in hard steel collars is not quickly worn out.

The nose end of the spindle should be drilled up somewhat smaller than the intended ultimate size, and the pulley end should also be drilled up the required size for tapping. Both ends are properly countersunk, and the tail end tapped. The spindle is again put on the lathe centres and reduced to near the finishing size. The necks are tapered 14° to match the collars, and the large neck near the nose end' joins the nose by an abrupt cone of about 45°. The collars forming the bearings for these necks will form the gauges to go by in reducing the spindle to near finishing size.

The spindle may now be finally fitted to its bearings, and at this stage the question of hardening the spindle or leaving it soft must be decided. The entire external part should be reduced to finished size, except the necks, and these conical bearings are the only parts to be hardened. In nine tenths of cases a soft spindle will probably be equally serviceable. The hardened necks are ground by a revolving lap to share and to very nearly fit the collars, the final grinding into place being done with oilstone dust, the spindle forming its own grinder. The soft spindle is itself used to grind the final fit in the collars, and oilstone-dust is used as the abradent when the fitting is almost completed.

Should it happen that the collars are not quite in line, in their places in the shank, it will be well to make a soft metal grinder and true them with coarse emery. This grinder is conveniently made of an iron spindle about an eighth of an inch less in diameter than the bore through the shank, and a couple of inches longer. Rings of lead are cast on this at points corresponding with the bearings, and these are turned precisely with the cones on the steel spindle. Soft brass or copper may be used for making this grinder, in place of the lead with an iron core. Coarse emery and a few minutes' grinding will bring the collars in line, and afterwards the grinder forms a first-rate model from which to shape the bearings on the steel spindle. However, if proper precaution has been taken in boring the shank and in inserting the collars, it is not likely that this will be out of line, and commonly the grinder last described will be but seldom required.

The spindle proper may be made next. A drawing of this is given in the illustrations. Good cast steel of suitable temper is necessary to produce a satisfactory spindle. A piece of The drilling-spindle proper having been rod steel of suitable size having been selected, ground into its bearings as already described, it is first to be carefully centered, drilled up, the tail end of it should be prepared for and countersunk at both ends. A large receiving the wheel and pulley. Several portion of the material has to be cut away in views of these are given in the drawings; shavings, and some labour is saved by draw- the section in the right-hand corner marked ing down at the forge all those parts of the wheel" shows the construction of them. spindle behind the nose. In making one It is, perhaps, advisable to make the two spindle the trouble of either making the pieces which form the wheel and pulley both forging oneself, or of having it made, is of same material, and cast iron is suitable, probably in most cases greater than the though phosphor-bronze is better, and mild trouble of turning away the surplus material steel is about best. Here it may be refrom a parallel red of steel. A good, stiff marked that this toothed wheel fitted to this

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pulley may be replaced by a second grooved pulley, and the gear-wheel and pinion and all their appendages omitted, making this a drilling spindle to be driven direct from the overhead without gearing.

about twenty teeth. If these teeth were
finer, say by about twenty-five per cent., it
would be an improvement.

A section of the pinion and its pulley is shown beside the wheel in the top right-hand As may be seen in the section, the pulley corner of the drawing. This shows the has a boss projecting from one side, on pinion bored through to fit on the stud, which the toothed wheel is fitted. Three shown in section near the middle of the steel pins fix the two together; one of these drawing, and the pulley riveted to the pinion. pins is shown in the section, and the three The pinion has its teeth a little wider than are shown in the view of pulley end. The those of the wheel: this adds to their ring shown in section on the left is made of strength, and rather facilitates construction. steel, and is intended to bear against the end It has been said above that the teeth of the back collar so as to prevent end-play number about 20, and 60 to 65 in the pinion in the spindle. The piece to form the pulley and wheel respectively, because it is well to should be bored and fitted on the tail end of have a tooth more or less than an exact the spindle. The end of this latter has flats multiple, so that the same teeth do not meet filed on opposite sides, and the pulley is at every few rotations, but every tooth of therefore bored smaller at its outer side, and the pinion engages with a different tooth in the hole is enlarged by filing on opposite the wheel at every contact till the wheel has sides to pass over the wide part of the spindle tail. Near the back end of the spindle a screw is illustrated to show the dimensions of the one which holds on the pulley. It is very advisable to turn the pulley true in its place on the spindle, so as to be sure that the wheel will run true when fitted on the boss. The V-groove in the edge of the pulley should also be finished when running on the spindle; the rough turning should be done first by mounting the pulley on a temporary

mandrel.

The toothed wheel itself needs very little description; it is a plain disc, the central hole fitting on the boss of the pulley, and there are about sixty to sixty-five teeth cut on its edge; the pinion which drives it has

now be actually used by driving it with a band round the grooved pulley. The nose end will, however, require to be bored out truly and tapering, so that drills and other cutters may be easily exchanged. It is best to make this hole in the nose end whilst the spindle is running in its own bearings, and it is usually quite convenient to fix the spindle by its shank on the slide-rest with its nose projecting on the right, and to drive it from the lathe mandrel by some temporary carrier arrangement. The hole can be bored up with a half-round bit.

The shape of this hole, and the method of fixing the cutter-shanks in it, are matters for consideration. A tapering hole, modelled after the socket for holding a Morse twistdrill, with a rectangular hole mortised diameter-ways through the spindle where the tapering hole ends, is a very good method; rotated from about 60 to 65 times, as the case perhaps none is better. A parallel hole with may be. Perhaps this attention to the dis-square-headed pinching-screw, as shown in tribution of wear is of more importance the drawings, is a good method, and the theoretically than it is practically in these shanks of the cutters are more easily fitted days of accurately-cut wheel-teeth, though than in the former method; but the proit was a matter of some importance in thejecting head of the pinching-screw is someold millwright's days.

The ring of cast steel is prepared to fit on the tail end, and to fix in the recess of the wheel. This ring is hardened, and forms the bearing against the back end of the back collar, thus preventing end-shake in the spindle. When this ring is fixed in the wheel the spindle may be put in its place, the pulley put on, and the screw in the tail end tightened up to bring the cone fittings into due contact. The drilling spindle may

times a great nuisance. This may be reduced by making the screw with a flat head slotted for a screw-driver; or, better still, without a head, and only long enough to lie flush with the outside of the spindle and slotted. But such a screw needs care in turning, and a screw-driver should be made specially for it, and not used for general purposes. For boring the hole to size a half-round bit will answer perfectly, provided it is entered truly, and the bit may be either parallel or

tapering, as may be preferred. A tapering sink, as explained in connection with the
bit must, of course, have its half-round screws in the saddle, but the point binds
cutting part long enough to at least reach in the conical hole in the pillar, there being
the whole depth of the hole.
ample strength in this casting to allow the
screw to do so.

It is convenient to be able to fix the complete drilling spindle in a position that allows it to be used for rotating its own cutters when these have to be turned to shape. Sometimes it is handy to use the slide-rest for turning the cutters, and, if so used, it is not available for holding the spindle-shank. In these cases a block of wood can be bolted on to the lathe-bed of such dimensions that its top surface will be the same height as the top-plate of the slide-rest. The shank of driller can be fixed on this block. When the height of the block is correct, a wooden chuck, turned out to fit the teeth of the wheel on the tail end of the spindle is a good means of driving the spindle. Arranged in this way, the cutters fitted to the drilling spindle, when actually fitted in their place, can be turned true and to required form by means of the slide-rest, or by a hand-tool, as found most convenient.

two screws

their construction, and the quantity of work was, of course, necessarily small. But the time has come when the demand for ruled paper has arisen to a great extent; so manufacturers have set their heads together, and now we have rulingmachines which really deserve the name of bedposts." machine-we used to call them “

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old form of pens are the "Hickok" and the Shaw," called after their respective makers. These machines can do ordinary ruling or stopheading with equal speed-that is to say, that stop-heading work can be done as fast as ordinary feint or run-through work.

The best-known machines which still use the

The stud on which the pinion revolves is turned true and parallel, and a large-headed screw, shown in the drawings, is fitted to the threaded hole in its centre. A steel washer is also fitted to this part, as shown in the top and side views. This washer has a small pin in it which enters a notch made in the end of the stud, and by these means is prevented from revolving. The screw should fix this These machines, however, although a very washer firmly against the flat end of the great improvement on the old style, have not overstud, and the length of this should be such come the whole difficulty. In large shops, where that the pinion may revolve freely but with-speed is desired, and large quantities of perfect out end-shake upon it. The casting for the work are wanted in a short time, the pen has stud and the metal for the pinion should not ever been a source of much inconvenience, rebe both of bronze; but if they are, a very to keep the ink flowing in the pen, and to keep quiring the constant attention of the workman thin tube of steel may be fixed in the bore of double lines from running into each other, or the pinion so as to avoid the detrimental running "blind," as we say, and at the end of a offect of friction between similar metals, long run he has to spend many an hour in mendthough cast iron will work excellently with ing broken lines and cleaning with chloride of lime mistakes and blots. Besides this, there is the wear and breakage of pens, and the necessity of making and using new ones a thing which It does take some the ruler does not care about. coaxing to get new pens to work.

cast iron.

The drawings will supply further particulars concerning the method of designing this appliance. A set of drawings of another geared drilling-spindle have been made, and may be published at a future time. This second spindle is very similar in its capacity and dimensions to the one which forms the subject of this paper; but it differs very much in design.

The method of mounting the pinion and The pinion is shown in section with its pulley to drive the wheel is the next con- pulley, and the latter is fitted on to a sleeve sideration. A casting, side and back views of the pinion and riveted. One or two small of which are given towards the left of the pins or keys are inserted to fix the pulley and drawings, is made to fit over the shank pinion together, as the riveting would not where it is held by two conical-pointed be strong enough to withstand the strain screws, and a short round pillar projects under heavy cutting. Any effective method from the top of this saddle. The drawings of keying the pulley on the pinion may be will make the shape of this casting clear, adopted; a good plan is to drill holes in two and it can be made of cast iron or of bronze places through the pulley, and into teeth in to match the pulleys and toothed wheels. the pinion, and drive in pins. The upright pillar is turned parallel, and has an enlarged base, also turned. The saddle part has to be filed to fit on the shank, and are tapped through the side flaps of the saddle. One of these screws is shown near the centre of the drawing. When the position of the saddle lengthways on the shank has been determined, conical holes are bored into its opposite sides, and the cone points of the screws fit in these holes, and so prevent the saddle lifting under the influence of the driving band's tension, when working from overhead on the pulley driving the pinion. These cone-pointed screws should be so fitted that they will screw right home and bed in the counter-sinks under their heads at the same time that the cone-points fix the saddle. If the screws' points project in excess of this, the flaps of the saddle will be strained when the screws are tightened, and if this excessive projection is much, and the screws are incautiously tightened, the casting may be broken. But, when fitted as above explained, there is no tendency to strain the casting.

The pinion-stud shown in the top and the side views of the complete drilling-spindle, and also in section near the middle of the drawings, is also a casting. It is spherical, with a pin, to receive the pinion, projecting from one side, and a hole bored through at right angles to this pin, which fits over the upright pillar. This casting is quite easily chucked for turning by marking the positions of the two screwed holes shown in the sectional view, drilling, countersinking, and tapping them. The casting will then run on the lathe between the cone centres which will enter these countersunk holes. The pin and the spherical part are thus turned to shape and size, and the large hole through the diameter of the sphere is then bored.

"STATI

HOW BOOKS ARE BOUND.-XVII,
By "PRACTICAL BOOKBINDER."
(TATIONERY" or "vellum-binding" in-
cludes everything, from the d. pass-book to
the ponderous ledger for the desk of the merchant
this class of work is the most correct I will not
or banker. Which of the two terms applied to
venture to say: neither will I venture to give a
reason why either should be applied; nor yet
will I try to trace the origin of the terms.
Enough for the present is the fact that, generally
speaking, the former is the provincial term, while
the latter is almost always employed in the
London binderies. In London this branch is
quite distinct from letterpress binding; but in
the country the two are often found side by side
will have to be well up in both, or they will find
under the same roof, and most country binders
their chances of constant employment somewhat
diminished.

The first process in this part of the work is,
generally speaking, the ruling of the paper. It
is very seldom that a workman can be found who
is able to execute both branches in a satisfactory
manner. Still, we do find that in small shops a
workman who is a ruler has to try and fill in part
of his time at binding, and a binder has now and
again to turn his hand to ruling. Of course, it
proficient at both branches: they are sure to be
is not to be expected that such men can be alike
somewhat backward at the one or the other; so
my object in writing this article is to help such
men rather than the amateur bookbinder, who is
not so likely to take to this branch as a hobby as
he would to letterpress binding.

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A cone-pointed screw, longer but otherwise similar to the two used for fixing the saddle, is fitted in the threaded hole in There is very little to describe in the process the sphere. When the exact vertical posi- of paper ruling.' It has been done by the tion of the stud has been determined, which aid of a very simple machine. A number of allows the wheel and pinion to intergear pens, made of thin brass called "latten brass,' properly, a small conical hole is made in the are set in a frame of wood, corresponding to the pillar so that the stud may always be easily filled with ink lies along the front of the frame, desired pattern. A piece of flannel kept well replaced in its proper position if shifted for the ink passes down the groove of the pen, and any purpose. This conical hole also affords the sheets of paper, being fed in one by one, are a sufficient hold for the fixing screw which carried underneath the pens, which leave the it would not otherwise have. This screw is lines where it is desired. These machines have not fitted for its head to bed in the counter-until very recently been somewhat primitive in

Those ingenious people, the Germans, have helped us over this other part of the difficulty. They have given us a most perfect rulingmachine, in which discs of brass take the place of pens, with which it is impossible to run blind or broken lines. The discs, being made of hard brass, will, roughly speaking, never wear out. By the complete arrangement of the striking apparatus, the most complicated patterns can be ruled at one operation, three colours can be used simultaneously, as many as four jobs can be on the machine at one time, and the most important point of all is that the machine rules requiring but little floor space, can be wrought both sides at once. It is a most compact machine, by hand or power, and, without doubt, it is the machine of the future. The English agent is Mr. W. C. Horne, 6, Dowgate-hill, London, E.C. I would certainly advise rulers to become acquainted with it as soon as possible.

One or two little hints may be of service to some rulers. When you find that your ink does not flow well in the pen, and you fancy you have put in sufficient gall, try a drop or two of spirits of wine, and mark the effect.

If your chloride of lime does not act quickly while working with blue-laid paper apply the enough, put in a few drops of oxalic acid; but blotting paper as soon as the chloride has touched the spot you want to clean, or you will have a large white spot, which will be worse than the original blemish. If a double line has run blind, it can be split again by using an ordinary pen, dipped in chloride and drawing it carefully in the centre with the aid of a straight edge.

a

After the paper has been ruled, it is given to female operator, whose duty it is to make it up and penny pass-books, and confine our remarks into books. We will pass over the memorandum to such work as will come under the designation

of books.

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The best-known styles are called "4-bound flush," "1-bound flush turned in," "bound with squares, -bound close back,' ""-bound bound with single," or "double Russia over open or spring back," "full-bound,' bands," &c.

wove,

99 66

99 66

"full

For the cheap kinds of books, such as the four first-named, a common paper will be used. It is known by the following names:-" Yellow cream wove, ""cream laid," azure laid," "blue laid," "machine made," &c. Books such as these are generally made up in six or eight-sheet sections i.e.:-six or eight sheets are taken and folded once; thus three-quire book, which would contain seventy-two sheets, will consist of twelve six-sheet sections.

For books of a better class the paper used is much superior, and is generally known as "hand made." Ordinary hand-made paper has a bluish tinge; but will be found on close inspection to be darker on one side than on the other. has to be taken when folding this paper to turn

Care

!

it so that the dark side and light side will not face each other, the object being to have every opening of the book either dark or light, as the case may be. If the left-hand side of the folio or opening is light, the right-hand side should be light also, and so with the dark.

The next operation is that of sewing, and, according to the style, the book is sewn on two, three, four, or five bands. The bands consist of tape of different widths and various degrees of strength, the heavier books having besides tapes strips of strong vellum, which is intended to add to the strength. The sewing presents very little difference from letterpress work, which has been already fully described. There is a difference, however. In this class of work there are no saw-marks made in the back, and each sheet is sewn all the way up, the thread being taken round the band, especially in good work. It is very necessary to use the best material for account-book binding; a good linen thread, which should be well waxed, is indispensable. It is often considered the right thing to paste a narrow strip of white linen on the outside and inside of every section of the book; this adds greatly to the strength, and should always be done in good work.

This work has up till quite recent times been entirely done by hand; but now we have a machine which, being specially made for accountbooks, executes this work in a wonderful manner.

For strength it is quite equal to the best handwork, sewing every sheet round the bands, which may be any number from three to six. In point of numbers it of course far exceeds the hand method. It would be quite out of place to enter more fully into the details of this machine. It is made by the Smyth Manufacturing Co., Hartford, Conn., U.S.A., and can be seen in operation at 2, White Horse-alley, Cow Cross-street, London, E. C.

For open or spring-back work the end papers will have to be made. These are made differently as taste and circumstances may direct, but the following method will do for ordinary work. Four sheets of paper, the same as is to be used for the book, are taken and folded singly. Two strips of black linen or binder's cloth are cut the length of the book, and about 1in. broad. These are glued carefully, and laid flat upon the bench. One of the sheets of paper is taken and laid down about half upon the cloth, another is laid down about in. apart from the first, turn them over, and rub the cloth down with the folder. Treat the other two in same manner. Two sheets of marble paper are now taken and cut in half, making four pieces, which should of course be the same size as the book. These are glued and laid carefully down upon the paper, allowing the edge to lap about in. upon the cloth. When the four have been done, the end papers are folded down the centre of the cloth, which is called the joint. They should be hung up to dry. When they are dry, they are sewn one at the back and one at the front of the book. They are sewn in the same manner as an ordinary section of the book.

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add that he is at this instant in the constellation | then enters; emerging from it again at 4h. a.m. Pisces. This is the theoretical date of the Equinox. The actual equality of day and night will occur in London on the previous day, the 19th.

The Zodiacal Light may be well seen in the West after sunset.

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on the 12th, to re-enter Pisces. She only continues in Pisces until 2h. a.m. on the 13th, when she plunges into another outlier of Cetus. When she finally quits this, at 9 o'clock the same morning, she comes out in Aries. She leaves Aries for Taurus at 5h. p.m. on the 14th, and Taurus, in turn, for Gemini, at 2h. p.m. on the 17th. It takes her until 5h. p.m. on the 19th to travel through Gemini, and at the hour just named she passes into Cancer. Her passage through Cancer terminates at 9h. a.m. on the 21st, and she then enters Leo. Here she remains until 10h. a.m. on the 24th, and then quits Leo for Virgo. Her journey through this great constellation does not terminate until 1h. a.m. on the 28th, when she crosses the boundary into Libra. Traversing Libra, as at the beginning of March, she arrives for the second time this morning, half an hour after the midnight of the 29th, at the Northern spike of Scorpio. This she has crossed by 1h. p.m. on the 30th, and entered Ophiuchus. She is on the very confines of Ophiuchus and Sagittarius at midnight on the 31st.

Mercury

Is a morning star during the greater part of the month, but comes into superior conjunction with the sun at 1h. a.m. on the 24th, and, of course, subsequently travels to the east of him. He is The moon will be in conjunction with Venus but indifferently placed for the observer throughat 4h. a.m. on the 7th (Venus 5° 35' N.); with out March, and his diameter, which is only Jupiter at 3h. a.m. on the 9th (Jupiter 4° 24' N.); 5.2" at the beginning and end of March, remains Mercury at 1 o'clock the same afternoon pretty constant at 5" for the major part of it. (Mercury 3° 1' N.); with Mars at 8 a.m. His tiny disc is very nearly circular when it is on the 13th (Mars 3° 25′ N.); and with Saturn at possible to catch it in the telescope.

10 12 32-77PM 22 48 347 34 45S. 22 36 0.80 2 p.m. on the 23rd (Saturn 3° 5'S).

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The method of finding the Sidereal Time at mean noon at any other station will be found on p. 376 of our LIInd Volume.

Spots continue to appear upon the sun's disc, and should be looked for whenever he is visible. At 9h. 24m. p.m. on March 20th, the Sun is said technically to enter Aries, and spring is supposed to commence. It is almost needless to

When our Notes commence the Moon is in Libra, across which she is travelling until 7h. P.m. on the 2nd, at which hour she arrives at the Western edge of the Northern spike of Scorpio. By 7 o'clock in the morning of the 3rd she has crossed this and come out in Ophiuchus, where she continues until 6h. p.m. on the 4th, when she enters Sagittarius. She does not leave Sagittarius until 3h. a.m. on the 7th, at which hour she passes into Capricornus; but she completes her journey across this constellation by 7h. p.m. on the 8th, and then she leaves it for Aquarius. She is in Aquarius until 4h. p.m. on the 10th, and then she enters Pisces. As she traverses Pisces, she comes, at 5h. 30m. a.m. on the 11th, to an outlying part of Cetus, which she

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are both, for the observer's purpose, invisible, but Saturn

Is above the horizon all night long, comes into opposition to the sun at 3 p.m. on the 4th, and is very well placed for telescopic observation. The angular equatorial diameter of the ball diminishes quite insensibly from 19-45" at the beginning of March, to 19-25" by the end of it. The way in which the ring system is closing up now is very striking, presenting as it does, in a small or moderately-sized telescope, the aspect of a thick blunt-ended line.

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• Early morning of 2nd. The method of ascertaining the Greenwich Mean Time of Southing of either of the stars in the above list for any other night in March, as also that of determining the Local Instant of its Transit at any other station, will be found on P. 368 of Vol. LII.

GEOLOGY FOR STUDENTS.-I. By EDWARD AVELING, D.Sc. Lond., Fellow of University College, London.

on the 18th at 9-7h. p.m., Titan then being 16" TH

south of its primary. Hyperion will be at its

Chapter I.-Plan of Work.

HE series of articles, "Botany for Students," in the ENGLISH MECHANIC were received

A.--Preliminary Subjects. Objects. Waste of land now brought about by mechani(a) Basis of Geology. - Definition of Geology: its cal causes-wind, rain, running water, frost, snow, glaciers, and the sea. Origin of boulders, rounded pebbles, grains of sand, and mud. Detritus carried in mechanical suspension in rivers. The cementing substances that bind together incoherent rock-forming materials. Deposition of strata now going on in seas, estuaries, and lakes from sediments formed mechanically. Other strata formed in part, or entirely of, organic remains. Proof that stratified rocks generally were formed by deposition from water as above. That strata have been successively deposited and are of various ages. That strata of different ages are characterised by special fossils. The principal tests of the relative ages of stratified rocks. Definition of the term igneous or eruptive as applied to rocks.

(b) Common Geological Terms.-Definition of "crust of the earth," clay, shale, marl, marl-slate, sand, sandstone, conglomerate, breccia, limestone, lava, volcanic ashes; stratum or bed; a formation, group of formations. Recent, Cainozoic (Tertiary), Mesozoic (Becondary), and Paleozoic formations. Outcrop, dip, strike. Horizontal, inclined, vertical strata. Anticlinal and synclinal curves. Contorted and inverted strata. Conformable and unconformable stratification. Diagonal or cross stratification. Overlap, joint. Fissile or flaggy structure, lamination, foliation, cleavage, fault, lode, vein, dyke. Hade. Ripplemarks, rain-pittings, sun cracks, and their indications.

(c) Composition of principal rocks and the common rock-forming materials.-Minerals that form granites, syenites, diorites (greenstones), dolerites (basalts), volcanic ashes (tuffs), &c. Serpentine; gneiss and micaschist, limestones, dolomite, and calcareous tufa; clays, shales, slates, sandstones, grits, irenstone, flint, chert, &c. Coal, what originally formed from; colouring matter of rocks. Formation and mode of occurrence of nodules and nodular concretions. Characters of the more important igneous, aqueous, and metamorphic rocks.

(d) Disintegration and Solution.-Disintegration and solution of minerals composing rocks; origin of soils. Springs mineral and springs thermal, and substances in chemical solution in rivers, lakes, and the sea.

(e) Snow and Ice.-How glaciers are formed. MoveMoraines. ment of glaciers and transport of matter on their surfaces. Roches Moutonnées. Perched blocks. Boulder-clay, and other glacial deposits. Erosion of rocks over which glaciers flow. Icebergs, whence derived. Transport of matter from cold to warmer latitudes by

icebergs.

rivers. Terraces, transport of materials seaward, and (1) Rivers.-Cutting out of valleys and canons by

formation of deltas and bars.

(9) Marine Denudation, Transport and Consolidation of Material, and Fossilisation.-Waste of sea-coasts by breakers and by help of landslips. Rounding of pebbles and grains of sand on shores by the action of winddirectly on land, indirectly in water and in streams. Formation of shingle beaches and of sand-dunes. The effect of long-continued marine denudation on land; formation of bays and head-lands, &c. Distribution of sediments derived from land over sea-bottoms, forming modern marine strata. Consolidation of strata by pressure, chemical changes, the introduction of cementing Preservation of shells, matter, and by heat. Fossils.

&c., in (marine, lacustrine, and estuarine) deposits in caverns and in alluvium, and in and under peat, blown sand, shell mounds, and volcanic ashes. Fossil casts. Modes of fossilisation.

(h) Internal Heat, Volcanoes, Earthquakes, and other Movements of the Earth's Crust.-Evidence of the gradual sinking and rising of the sea-bottom. Coral reefs, fringing reefs, barrier reefs, atolls. Volcanoes and their connection with some areas of upheaval of land above the sea. Raised beaches. The structure of volcanoes. Earthquakes. General structure of mountain chains. The evidence of the existence of so-called central heat in the earth. Probable thickness of the earth's crust. Change of sedimentary strata, such as shale and slate, sandstone, limestone, &c., into mica schist, gneiss, quartzite, crystalline limestone, &c. (metamorphism).

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greatest Eastern Elongation from Saturn at with sufficient favour to warrant the starting of Coal, ironstone, and ores of other metals, salt, building10.4h. p.m. on the 19th.

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another similar series. The subject chosen is Geology. This chapter and its successors, therefore, are intended as guides to the practical study of geology. They assume, on the part of the reader, no knowledge of the subject. Whilst the syllabus of the Science and Art Department at South Kensington is taken as a basis for the general plan of work, "Geology for Students" is intended, as its name implies, to help all those who enter upon the study of geology, no matter what particular end they may have in view. For those who purpose presenting themselves for examination at South Kensington in this subject, and for those who from October to May teach geology in our science schools and classes, the series will, I hope, be of especial service. Further, the series may be of use to those students who take up geology as one of their three optional subjects for the B.Sc. pass examination at London University.

For the sake of reference, and in order to secure at once our "basis," the syllabus of

(k) Oldest known strata, or the Archæan or Pre-Cambrian rocks: their metamorphic character. Oldest known fossils.

(1) Cambrian and Silurian: their main sub-divisions and their more characteristic groups of fossils: Graptolites, Trilobites; relative abundance of Brachiopoda. First appearance of fish, and of land plants.

(m) Old Red Sandstone: its characteristic fossils. (n) Carboniferous.-The ordinary succession of these strata in Wales and the South-West of England. The coral, shells, and fish remains found in the Carboniferous limestone and other beds. The succession of strata; sections found in the coal-measures. The underclay generally below beds of coal. Formation of coal. How there came to be many beds of coal in one coal-field, with beds of

shale, ironstone, and sandstone between. (0) Permian.-Order of succession in England, and the proofs of unconformity on the Carboniferous strata. The chief fossils of the Magnesian limestone.

D.-Mesozoic, &c.-Secondary Series.

(P) New Red Sandstone or Trias.-British divisions: 1. New Red Sandstone (Bunter); 2. New Red Marl (Keuper). Unconformity on Permian and older rocks. Great changes of life in passing from Palaeozoic to Mesozoic times. Origin of Rock Salt, by evaporation of salt water. Gypsum, of Red Marl. (2) Penarth or Rhaetic Beds.

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