of the knuckle of the hinge is exactly opposite to the perpendicular part of the rebate. The dotted lines exhibit the flap when folded back.

2160. When the axis of

the knuckle cannot be dis

posed so as to fall opposite to the joint, the hinge is to be placed as shown in fig. 771. Thus, ab being the distance of the edge of the flap from that of the shutter, bisect it in c, which will be the point opposite whereto the centre of the hinge is to be placed. This arrangement is necessary, both when the shutters are not square at the ends, and when the boxing is restricted in space; the principle being to place the centre of the knuckle of the hinge at half the distance of the edge of the flap from the rebate on the edge of the shutter. In fig. 772. the two parts are shown hinged together.

2161. When a door has attached to it any projection, and, when open, it is requisite to bring it parallel to its place when shut, the knuckle of the hinge (fig. 773.) must project at least as far as the projection in question. An inspection of the diagram, wherein the dotted lines show the situation of the door when folded back, will sufficiently convey the mode of conducting this expedient.

2162. Fig. 774. is the representation of what is called a rule joint, which is used when the piece to be hung is not required to open to more than a right angle. In this case, the centre of the hinge is necessarily in the centre of the arc. In fig. 775. the expedient shows the method turned to a right angle.

2163. The various methods of hingeing to suit every possible case would occupy a very large space, were we to enter into them; and even after

Fig. 774.

exhausting all the cases that we may have imagined, others would arise to which no example given might be applicable; we therefore leave this portion of the subject of joinery, under an impression that the principles have been sufficiently developed to enable the student to pursue from them the application to any case that he may be called upon to put in practice.

SASH-FRAMES AND SASHES.

Fig. 772.

Fig. 773.

Fig. 775.

2164. In fig. 760. the connection between the shutters and sash-frame has been fully explained; we may now, therefore, proceed to the detail of a common sash-frame with its sashes, supposing them to be hung so as to be balanced by weights, suspended by sashlines running over pulleys, capable of balancing those of the sashes themselves. On the case of French sashes, which open like doors, we do not think it necessary to dilate. They are, in fact, nothing more than glazed doors; and the principal object for attainment in their construction, is to prevent the rain from penetrating into the apartments they serve, as well where they meet in the middle as at their sills, which is a subject requiring much care and attention.

2165. In fig. 776. is shown the construction of a sash-frame, and the method of putting together the several parts, wherein R is the elevation of the frame, of which ABCD is the outer edge. The thinner lines at EF, GH, FG, are grooves whose distances from the edges of the sash-frame LM and KI are equal to the depth of the boxing, together with threeeighths of an inch more that is allowed for margin between the face of the shutter, when, in the boxing, and the edges ML and KI of the sash-frame next to the bead. S is a horizontal section of the sides, whereon is shown also the plan of the sill. Tis a vertical section of the sill and top, in which is shown the elevation of the pully style m and n, and the pullies let into the pully piece. U is the horizontal section of the sides, showing also a plan of the head of the sash-frame. V the elevation of the outer side of the sash-frame; the outside lining being removed for the purpose of showing the work within the sash-frame. In this fg is the parting strip fastened by a pin; ed one of the weights connected to the sash by means of a line going over the pulley c, the other end being fixed to the edge of the sash.

The weight de is made equal to one half the weight of the sash. W is the head of the sash-frame before put together, and X shows the edge of W. Y is the edge of the bottom, exhibiting the manner of putting the styles in it, and Z is the plan of Y. Fig. 777., Nos. 1. and 2., are sections of the sills of sash-frames, with sections of the under rail of the sash, showing the best method of constructing them, in order to prevent rain from driving under the sash-rail. In each of these, A is the section of the bottom rail, B a section of the bead tongued into the sill, C a section of the sill. Fig. 778. exhibits sections of the meeting rails of the upper and lower sashes, with side elevations of the upright bars; C is the rebate for the glass, D a square, E and F an astragal and hollow moulding, G a fillet. The smaller letters mark the same parts of the under sash. Fig. 779. is the section of an upright bar with the plans of two horizontal bars, showing the ranking or manner in which they are put together to keep the upright bars as strong as possible. The thickness of the tenon in

Fig. 777.

general is about one sixteenth of an inch to the edge of the hollow of the astragal, and close to the rebate on the other side. hh is a dowel to keep the horizontal bars still firmer together. In this diagram the letters refer to the same parts as in the preceding figure; and it is also to be observed, that no rebate is made for the glass on the inside meeting rail, a groove being made to answer that purpose. Fig. 780. exhibits four sections of sash bars. But their forms, as in the case of mouldings, generally depends on the taste of the architect.

Fig. 778.

GROUNDS.

Fig. 779.

EF

Fig. 780.

2166. Grounds are pieces of wood framed together, and attached to walls, around windows, doors, or other openings in buildings, for the facility of fixing architraves or other mouldings upon them; in all these cases they ought to be fixed vertical on the face and edge, and the workman should take especial care to fix them firm and solid in every part; for, without accuracy and firmness, the inside work cannot be well finished to them, as it is to be recollected that in plastered rooms the plaster is worked to them.

2167. In fixing window grounds, the sash-frame must be first carefully placed so as to stand perfectly vertical; and then the face of the ground must stand quite parallel to the face of the sash-frame, and project about three quarters of an inch from the face of the naked brickwork, so as to leave a sufficient space for the thickness of the plaster. The edge of the ground should be in the same plane with the edge of the sash-frame, or, as the workmen term it, "out of winding." The edge of the architrave, when finished, in ordinary cases, will stand about three eighths of an inch within the inner edge of the sash-frame, so that a perpendicular line down to the middle of the grounds would stand exactly opposite to a perpendicular line down to the middle of the sash-frame.

FLOORS.

2168. In the laying of floors, the first care to be taken is that they be perfectly level, which, owing to the nature of the materials whereof they are constructed, is a difficult task. The chief sorts of floors may be divided into those which are folded, that is, when the boards are laid in divisions, whose side vertical joints are not continuous, but in bays of three, four, five, or more boards in a bay or fold; and those which are straight joint, in which the side joints of the boards are continuous throughout their direction.

As soon as the windows are fixed, the floors of a building may be laid. The boards are to be placed on their best face, and put to season till the sap is quite exhausted, when they may be planed smooth, and their edges shot and squared. The opposite edges are brought to a breadth by drawing a line on the face parallel to the other edge with a flooring guage, after which the common guage is used to bring them to a thickness, and they are rebated down on the back to the lines drawn by the guage.

2169. The next operation is, to try the joints, which, if not level, must be brought so, either by furring up if they be hollow, or by adzing down if they are convex, the former being more generally the case.

2170. The boards used for flooring are battens, or deals of greater breadth, whose qualities are of three sorts. The best is that free from knots, shakes, sapwood, or cross-grained stuff, selected so as to match well with one another. The second best is free of shakes and sapwood, and in it only small sound knots are permitted. The third, or most common sort, are such as are left after taking away the best and second best.

2171. The joints of flooring-boards are either quite square, ploughed and tongued, rebated, or dowelled; and in fixing them they are nailed on one or both edges, when the joints are plain and square without dowels. When they are dowelled, they may be nailed on one or both sides; but in the best dowelled work the outer edge only is nailed, by driving the brad through the edge of the board obliquely, without piercing its surface, which, when the work is cleaned off, appears without blemish.

2172. In laying the floor-boards, they are sometimes laid one after the other, or one is first laid, then the fourth, at an interval of something less than the united breadth of the second and third together. The two intermediate boards are then laid in their places with one edge on the edge of the first board and the other upon that of the fourth board, the two middle edges resting against each other, rising to a ridge at the joint. In order to force these boards into their places, two or three workmen jump upon the ridge till they have brought the under sides of the boards close to the joints; they are then fixed in their places with brads. This method is that first mentioned under this head, and in it the boards are said to be folded. We have here mentioned only two boards, but four boards are most commonly folded at a time, and the mode is always resorted to when a suspicion exists that the boards are not sufficiently seasoned, or they are known not to be so. The headings of these folds are either square, splayed, or ploughed and tongued. If a heading occurs in the length of the floor, it should be invariably made to fall over a joist, and one heading should not meet another.

2173. In dowelled floors the dowels should be placed over the middle of the interjoint rather than over the joists, so that the edge of one board may be prevented from passing that of the other. When the boards are only bradded upon one edge, the brads are concealed by driving them in a slanting direction through the outer edge of every successive board, with piercing the upper surface. In adzing the under sides of floor-boards opposite each joist, great care should be taken to clip away the stuff straight, and also to avoid taking away more of the stuff than is necessary, in which case the soundness of the floor will not be compromised.

FRAMING.

2174. In fig. 781. are shown several methods for framing angles in dadoes, skirtings, troughs, and other objects, whereof A exhibits the method of mitring dado on exterior angles in an apartment. In fixing this together, brads may be driven from each side. B is a method of framing used for troughs or other rectangular wooden vessels. C is a method of putting dado or skirting together at any interior angle of a room. This mode

is also employed for water-trunks, or troughs. In D is shown the manner of fixing and finishing two pieces of framing together, with a bead at their meeting, by which the joint is concealed. It is used only in common finishings. In those of a better sort the angle is kept entire, and only a three-eighth bead used at the joint, the angle being kept entire. It is a great point in all joiner's work to preserve the sharpness of the angles of the work, and many prefer the method shown in F, without any bead at the joint. In this the joint is made as close as possible, and is well glued together. If additional strength be required, blockings may be glued in the interior angle, which will make it quite firm. The method, by a simple mitre at E is not so good as at A, because it has no abut

ment.

2175. When it is required to glue up large work, those edges which are to receive the glue should be well warmed at a fire, and then, while warm, and the glue as hot as possible, they should be united, inasmuch as glue never holds well when it is chilled or cold.

STAIRS.

2176. Stairs and their handrails are among the most important objects of the joiner's skill. The choice of situation, the design, and what suits the general convenience of the building, sufficiency of light, and easy ascent, are indeed matters for the exercise of the architect's talent; but all these, however well contrived and arranged, are incomplete without a clear and accurate execution of the work.

2177. There are some leading principles which are common to all staircases, of whatsoever materials they may be constructed. Thus it is a maxim that a broad step should be of less height than one which is narrower; and the reason is sufficiently obvious, because in striding, what a man loses in breadth he can more easily apply in raising himself by his feet. Now, as in common practice it is found that the convenient rise of a step 12 inches in width is 5 inches, it may be assumed as some guide for the regulation of other dimensions. Thus 12 x 51=66, which would be a constant numerator for the proportion. Suppose, for instance, a step 10 inches in breadth, then =63 inches would be the height; and this agrees very nearly with the common practice. The breadth of steps in the commonest staircase may be taken at 10 inches at a medium. In the best staircases the breadth of the step should not be less than 12 inches, neither should it be more than 18 inches.

2178. Having adjusted the proportions of the steps, our next consideration is to ascertain the number of risers which will be necessary to carry us from one floor to another. Suppose, for example, the height from the top of one floor to that of the next be 15 ft. = 180 in.; here, if the steps are each of 6 inches rise, we have 180-30, which is the number of risers necessary to ascend from floor to floor. If the height divided by the rise of each step should not give an exact number of risers, it is better to add one rather than diminish the number. Thus, suppose the distance from floor to floor to be 13 ft. 2 in. = 158 in., then =224. Here it would be better to take 23 risers, for the steps must be equal in height. 2179. The width of the better sorts of staircases should not be less than 4 feet, to allow of two persons freely passing each other; but the want of space in town houses often obliges the architect to submit to less in what is called the going of the stair.

2180. The parts of every step in a staircase are one parallel to the horizon, which is called the tread of the step, terminated on the edge by a moulded or rounded nosing, and the other perpendicular to the horizon, which is called the riser of the step.

2181. It is not our intention to detail more than will be necessary for comprehending the work of the joiner in its application to stairs, which have many varieties of structure, dependent on the character, situation, and destination of the building. To this end we shall now, therefore, describe the method of carrying up dog-legged, bracket, and geometrical stairs.

2182. A DOG-LEGGED STAIRCASE is one which has no opening or well-hole, and in which the rail and balusters of the progressive and returning flights fall in the same vertical planes. The steps in it are fixed to strings, newel, and carriages, the ends of the steps of the inferior kind terminating only upon the side of the string without any housing. Y and Z in fig. 782. are the plan and elevation of a staircase of this kind; AB is the lower newel whereof the part BC is turned. On the plan, a is the seat of this newel. DE and FG in Y are the lower and upper string boards framed into newels, KL is a joist framed into the trimmer I. The lines on the plan represent the faces of the steps in the elevation without the nosings. MO and FQ are called the upper and lower ramps, the method of drawing

which is as follows:- In the upper ramp, for example, produce the top of the rail HM to P; draw MN vertical, and produce the straight part ON of the pitch of the rail to meet it in N, making NO equal to NM. Draw OP at a right angle to ON. From P, as a centre, describe the arc MO, and then the other concentric circle, which will complete the ramp required. The story rod RS is in the fixing of all staircases a necessary instrument; for in fixing the steps and other work by a common measuring rule, bit by bit, the chances are that an excess or defect will occur, to make the staircase faulty; which cannot be the case if the story rod is applied to every riser, and such riser be regulated thereby.

Y

C

MH

R

D

L

2183. A BRACKET STAIRCASE is one which has an opening or well, with strings and newels, and is supported by landings and carriages. The brackets are mitred to the end of each riser, and fixed to the string board, which is usually moulded like an architrave. In this sort of staircase the same methods are to be observed in respect of dimensions and laying off the plan and section as in a doglegged staircase. Nothing is to be done without the story rod just described, which must be constantly applied in making and setting up the stairs. The method of forming the ramps and knees has been touched upon in the preceding article, and the few particulars we intend to give respecting scrolls and handrailing will be reserved for a subsequent page. In bracket stairs the internal angle of the Fig. 782. steps is open to the end, and not closed by the string, as in common dog-legged stairs; the neatness also of the workmanship is as much attended to as in geometrical stairs. The balusters should be nicely dovetailed into the ends of the steps by twos, and the face of each front baluster is to be in a plane with the front face of the riser, and all the balusters being equally divided, the face of the middle one must of course stand in the middle of the face of the riser of the preceding step. The treads and risers are previously all glued up and blocked together, and when put in their places the under side of the step is nailed or screwed into the under edge of the riser, and then rough bracketed to the strings, as in a dog-legged staircase, in which the pitching pieces and rough strings are similar.

2184. A GEOMETRICAL STAIRCASE is one whose opening is down its centre, or, as it is called, an open newel, in which each step is supported by one end being fixed in the wall or partition, the other end of every step in the ascent having an auxiliary support from that immediately below it, beginning from the lowest one, which, of course, rests on the floor. The steps of a geometrical staircase should, when fixed, have a light and clean appearance, and, for strength's sake, the treads and risers, when placed in position, should not be less than 1 inch thick, supposing the going of the stair or length of the step to be 4 feet. For every 6 inches in length of the step an eighth of an inch should be added. The risers should be dovetailed into the cover, and in putting up the steps, the treads are screwed up from below to the under edges of the risers. The holes for sinking the heads of the screws ought to be bored with a centre bit and fitted closely in with wood well matched, so that the screws may be entirely concealed, and appear as a uniform surface without blemish. Brackets are mitred to the risers, and the nosings are continued round; but this practice induces an apparent defect, from the brackets, instead of giving support, being themselves unsupported, and actually depending on the steps, being indeed of no other use than merely tying together the risers and treads of the internal angles of the steps; and from the internal angles being hollow, except at the ends, which terminate by the wall at one extremity, and by the bracket at the other, there is an appearance of incomplete finish. The cavetto or hollow is carried all round the front of the slip, returned at the end, and again at the end of the bracket, then te along the inside of it, and then along the internal angle at the back of the riser.

2185. The ancient mode, however, was the best, in which the wooden was an imitation of the method of constructing geon etrical stairs in stone, which will be found under Masonry, in the previous Section III.; that is to say, the making of the steps themselves solid, and in section of the form of a bracket throughout their length. This is a more expensive method, but it is a solid and good one, and is still practised on the Continent, especially in France.