Happily they are so few, that they may be enumerated under various heads, and easily recognised by the student individually, without the application of definitions.

CLASSIFICATION AND INFLECTION OF PRONOUNS.

74. There are eight classes of Pronouns; namely-Personal, Relative, Interrogative, Reciprocal, Possessive, Distributive, Demonstrative, and Indefinite.

PERSONAL PRONOUNS.

75. The Personal Pronouns are-I, thou, he, with their inflections of gender, number, and case, thus-

Thou is seldom used, except in addressing the Deity.

You is now employed both as the singular and plural of the second person. Ye is the old form, of the nominative plural.

We is often used instead of I by authors, public speakers, and sovereigns. In order to avoid the appearance of egotism, I ought to be used as little as possible in literary composition.

76. A reflective form is obtained for the personal pronouns, in the nominative and objective cases, by adding self or selves to the possessive of the first and second persons, and to the objectives of the third person.

Thus I hurt myself. In poetry, the simple pronoun is sometimes used reflectively-He who hath bent him o'er the dead.

77. An emphatic form is obtained for the possessive case by adding own after the personal pronoun; as-my own book.

By giving my, thy, his, her, its, our, your, their, as the possessive cases of the personal pronouns, we intend that wherever a possessive is followed by a noun, it should be considered as a personal pronoun in the possessive case. This appears more strictly analogical and less confusing than to enumerate them as possessive pronominal adjectives, or possessive adjective pronouns. Thus, in the sentence-Call Jane: this is her pen-it is obvious that her stands strictly for Jane's, which

is a noun in the possessive case. If we say-the pen is hers, the word hers stands for the pen as well as its possessor, and may fitly be termed a possessive pronoun for the sake of distinction. See the notes on page 24.

Mine and thine were formerly used for my and thy before a vowel or h mute; as-Mine eye; thine heir.

RELATIVE PRONOUNS.

78. The Relative Pronouns are-who, which, that, what, and as.

They have been said to be relative, because they relate more closely than other pronouns to the words for which they stand. We question the accuracy of this distinction, and would prefer describing them as having a peculiarly connective nature; for which reason we would denominate them connective or conjunctive pronouns, were it not a violation of the established usage.

79. Who relates to persons, and to inferior animals if spoken of as human beings, as in fable; thus-the man who speaks; a stag who came to the river, said to himself, &c.

80. Which relates to inferior animals and things without life; as-the dog which barks; the book which was lost.

81. All relative pronouns are alike in both numbers; but who and which are thus inflected:

Singular and Plural.

MASC. AND FEM.

Nom. Who.

Pos. Whose.
Obj. Whom.

Singular and Plural.

NEUTER.

Nom. Which.

Pos. Whose.

Obj. Which.

82. That refers both to persons and things, and is used instead of who or which in certain circumstances. Syntax, Rule X., p. 91.)

(See

The relative that may always be distinguished from the demonstrative pronoun, and also from the conjunction, by its admitting of being changed into who or which without violating the sense.

83. As, generally a conjunction, is a relative when it follows such-such as do well.

84. What is a compound relative, including both the relative and its antecedent, being equivalent to that which, or the thing which-this is what I wanted; that is-the thing which I wanted.

85. Ever is compounded with who, which, and what, to form a kind of indefinite relatives. These are still in good use-whoever expects this; whichever road you take; whatever is, is right; but whoso, whosoever, whatsoever, and whichsoever, are now inelegant.

Which, formerly took the definite article the after a preposition : in the which ye also walked some time.' It was also used as a kind of adjective in a manner not now admitted-which things are an allegory. Yet we retain a not very dissimilar mode of employing both which and what-I know not which book to choose; he did not say what kind of horse he wanted. Which and what in this application might perhaps properly be classed with the indefinite adjectives-some, any, such, &c.

INTERROGATIVE PRONOUNS.

86. The Interrogative Pronouns are-who, which, and what. Though the same in form as the relatives, they are quite unlike as to their use.

87. Who is applied to persons, and is inflected like the relative who-who told you so? whose is this book? to whom shall I apply?

88. Which, as an interrogative, is applied both to persons and things when it is used to ask which individual of a known class or number is the object inquired about—which (thing) shall I take? which of you did this?

Whether was formerly used for this purpose Whether of them twain did the will of his father?'

89. What is used with reference to things in the same indefinite manner as who is to persons-what shall I say? what do you want?

What is often used as a simple exclamation, rather than an interrogation, though perhaps forming part of a question; as-What! are you here?

RECIPROCAL PRONOUNS.

90. Reciprocal Pronouns are those used to denote the action of different agents on each other. They are each other, and one another; as-they struck each other; each took the other by the hand; love one another.

POSSESSIVE PRONOUNS.

91. The Possessive Pronouns are-mine, thine, his, hers, its, ours, yours, theirs, own. They are not followed by nouns, but stand for them-(see p. 21); as- -this pen is mine, and that book is yours; is it his or hers?

DISTRIBUTIVE, DEMONSTRATIVE, AND INDEFINITE PRONOUNS, 92. The Distributive Pronouns are-each, either, neither. 93. The Demonstrative Pronouns are-this, that, with their plurals-these, those; perhaps also-former, latter, such, and

the same.

94. The Indefinite Pronouns are-none, any, many, few, all, much, whole, some, both, one, other, another. The last three have possessive cases like nouns.

Most of these pronouns are the same in form as the terms already mentioned as distributive, demonstrative, and indefinite adjectives; but they are often so different in their application, that it is better to call them pronouns, when they are not prefixed to nouns either expressed or obviously understood.

Murray introduced much confusion and inaccuracy into this subject by calling these adjective pronouns, and laying down the rule that every adjective pronoun is followed by a noun expressed or understood; while some later grammarians, perceiving the incongruity of a pronoun standing adjectively before a noun rather than instead of it, have called these terms pronominal adjectives. But the fact is, that they are not in every case followed by a noun expressed or understood; and when they are not, they cannot be regarded as adjectives, nor always as adjective pronouns. For instance, in the sentence-The first opportunity was that of the prince's death: that, obviously stands for the opportunity, and does not suggest that opportunity is understood after it. The only good on earth was pleasure-not to follow that was sin: that, stands for pleasure; and the sense would be quite altered if pleasure were expressed after it. So also in the sentence-I looked for some pears, but there were none: none, stands for no pears, but we cannot possibly express pears after it. This case is exactly parallel with that cited in the note under 77, respecting hers standing for her pen, or Jane's pen, and decides that as none can only be a pronoun indefinite, so mine, thine, &c., should be classed as pronouns possessive. On the other hand, when distributive, demonstrative, or indefinite terms are prefixed to nouns, they are strictly adjective in their nature and use; and it is difficult to say what there is pronominal about them. Some of them, indeed, cannot be used without a noun following. The student is recommended carefully to compare both the lists and the following exemplifications of distributives, demonstratives, and indefinites used as pronouns, with those given on page 18, as adjectives.

EXAMPLES.

(92.) Each of them sat on his throne. To each, to all, a kind goodnight. I will take either; but you shall have neither.

(93.) They say the man is dead, but this is not correct. These are thy toys. The earliest known epic is that of Homer. Whatever is, is best, I believe that. The books are like those which you bought. You have finished the page; that will do. Wellington and Napoleon were both great generals; but the former conquered the latter. There was no retirement more absolutely such than ours. That we may obtain forgiveness of the same.

(94.) Many are called, but few are chosen. The many rend the skies with loud applause. Much may be said on both sides. All is lost, save honour. We conceded all he desired. There is society where none intrudes. Any of them will go. One may be little the wiser. After all, I think I will go. The one puts his sickle into the other's harvest. One man's anguish is another's sport. They took the whole. Here is an apple and an orange; you may have both. In vain, alas! in vain, ye gallant few. One's own interest demands it.

Exercise.

Point out the pronouns, and the class to which each belongs:-One is here, another there. All is well. Mine be the friend. My own brother. Not for himself. His cheek is pale. I choose neither. He gives one to each. I love him, and he loves me. What are you doing? Ye know not what you ask. Which is the way? Who did that? Whichever road you take. Whoever judges thus. To whom will you give it? Whatever you say. Such confidence as represses curiosity. The house which is my property. Take we no note of them. There is none. In each other's countenance. Taunting each other. They ruin themselves. The best that I know. 'Tis mine, 'tis yours. Men in nations, all were his. If any, speak, for him have I offended.

VERBS.

CLASSIFICATION OF VERBS.

95. Verbs are Neuter, Intransitive, Transitive, or Auxiliary. 96. NEUTER or SUBSTANTIVE verbs are those expressing existence only; as-to be.

97. INTRANSITIVE verbs are those which express action without any object immediately affected by it; as— - to walk, to run. They are called intransitive verbs, because the action does not pass over to an object.

98. TRANSITIVE verbs are those which express action which passes over to an object; as-to strike, to punish. They are called transitive or active verbs, because they have an immediate object; that is, we must strike something, or punish somebody.

99. AUXILIARY verbs are those which are used to form the voices, moods, tenses, &c., of other verbs, but do not by themselves express either being or action; as-shall, will, may, might. They are called auxiliary, because their office is to assist in conjugating others.

100. The following verbs, in their various moods, tenses, numbers, and persons, are used as auxiliaries-be, have, do, will, may, can, shall, must, let; to which may now be added -get.

Some of these, as-be, have, do, and get, are often also principal verbs, which may be conjugated separately. In such cases, though the same in form as the auxiliaries, they convey distinct and independent ideas.

101. The verb TO BE is used throughout all its moods and tenses to form the passive voice (see 114), by adding the past participle of a transitive verb; as-he was beaten. In connection with a present participle, it forms a progressive tense; as-I am writing.

102. HAVE and HAD are used to mark relative past time;