94. The Indefinite Pronouns are-none, any, many, few, all, much, whole, some, both, one, other, another. The last three have possessive cases like nouns.

Most of these pronouns are the same in form as the terms already mentioned as distributive, demonstrative, and indefinite adjectives; but they are often so different in their application, that it is better to call them pronouns, when they are not prefixed to nouns either expressed or obviously understood.

Murray introduced much confusion and inaccuracy into this subject by calling these adjective pronouns, and laying down the rule that every adjective pronoun is followed by a noun expressed or understood; while some later grammarians, perceiving the incongruity of a pronoun standing adjectively before a noun rather than instead of it, have called these terms pronominal adjectives. But the fact is, that they are not in every case followed by a noun expressed or understood; and when they are not, they cannot be regarded as adjectives, nor always as adjective pronouns. For instance, in the sentence-The first opportunity was that of the prince's death: that, obviously stands for the opportunity, and does not suggest that opportunity is understood after it. The only good on earth was pleasure-not to follow that was sin: that, stands for pleasure; and the sense would be quite altered if pleasure were expressed after it. So also in the sentence-I looked for some pears, but there were none: none, stands for no pears, but we cannot possibly express pears after it. This case is exactly parallel with that cited in the note under 77, respecting hers standing for her pen, or Jane's pen, and decides that as none can only be a pronoun indefinite, so mine, thine, &c., should be classed as pronouns possessive.

On the other hand, when distributive, demonstrative, or indefinite terms are prefixed to nouns, they are strictly adjective in their nature and use; and it is difficult to say what there is pronominal about them. Some of them, indeed, cannot be used without a noun following. The student is recommended carefully to compare both the lists and the following exemplifications of distributives, demonstratives, and indefinites used as pronouns, with those given on page 18, as adjectives.

EXAMPLES.

(92.) Each of them sat on his throne. To each, to all, a kind goodnight. I will take either; but you shall have neither.

(93.) They say the man is dead, but this is not correct. These are thy toys. The earliest known epic is that of Homer. Whatever is, is best, I believe that. The books are like those which you bought. You have finished the page; that will do. Wellington and Napoleon were both great generals; but the former conquered the latter. There was no retirement more absolutely such than ours. That we may obtain forgiveness of the same.

The many rend the skies both sides. All is lost, There is society where

(94.) Many are called, but few are chosen. with loud applause. Much may be said on save honour. We conceded all he desired. none intrudes. Any of them will go. One may be little the wiser. After all, I think I will go. The one puts his sickle into the other's harvest. One man's anguish is another's sport. They took the whole. Here is an apple and an orange; you may have both. In vain, alas! in vain, ye gallant few. One's own interest demands it.

Exercise.

Point out the pronouns, and the class to which each belongs:-One is here, another there. All is well. Mine be the friend. My own brother. Not for himself. His cheek is pale. I choose neither. He gives one to each. I love him, and he loves me. What are you doing? Ye know not what you ask. Which is the way? Who did that? Whichever road you take. Whoever judges thus. To whom will you give it? Whatever you say. Such confidence as represses curiosity. The house which is my property. Take we no note of them. There is none. In each other's countenance. Taunting each other. They ruin themselves. The best that I know. 'Tis mine, 'tis yours. Men in nations, all were his. If any, speak, for him have I offended.

VERBS.

CLASSIFICATION OF VERBS.

95. Verbs are Neuter, Intransitive, Transitive, or Auxiliary. 96. NEUTER or SUBSTANTIVE verbs are those expressing existence only; as-to be.

97. INTRANSITIVE verbs are those which express action without any object immediately affected by it; as-to walk, to run. They are called intransitive verbs, because the action does not pass over to an object.

98. TRANSITIVE verbs are those which express action which passes over to an object; as-to strike, to punish. They are called transitive or active verbs, because they have an immediate object; that is, we must strike something, or punish somebody.

99. AUXILIARY verbs are those which are used to form the voices, moods, tenses, &c., of other verbs, but do not by themselves express either being or action; as-shall, will, may, might. They are called auxiliary, because their office is to assist in conjugating others.

100. The following verbs, in their various moods, tenses, numbers, and persons, are used as auxiliaries-be, have, do, will, may, can, shall, must, let; to which may now be added -get.

Some of these, as-be, have, do, and get, are often also principal verbs, which may be conjugated separately. In such cases, though the same in form as the auxiliaries, they convey distinct and independent ideas.

101. The verb TO BE is used throughout all its moods and tenses to form the passive voice (see 114), by adding the past participle of a transitive verb; as-he was beaten. In connection with a present participle, it forms a progressive tense; as—I am writing.

102. HAVE and HAD are used to mark relative past time;

have marking a relation to the present, and had to some past time. I have spoken-that is, before now; I had spoken— that is, previous to some past time referred to.

You did say so.
Did you say?
You did not say.

103. Do and DID are used for1. Emphasis-You do know it. II. Interrogation-Do you know? III. Negation-You do not know. 104. SHALL and WILL are used to form future tenses, which are employed

1. To foretell, promise, or threaten-You shall know. I will reward you.

II. To command what is to be done-Thou shalt love thy neighbour as thyself.

For the respective uses of shall and will, see observations more at large on page 106, &c.

105. WOULD is used to express

1. The past of will-They would not go. They would do it in spite of me. He said it would rain. II. Past habits-He would sit reading for hours. III. Present or future willingness conditionally-He would go now, if he could. You would do it for a shilling. Would that I were free! I would that it

were so.

106. SHOULD is used to express

1. The past of shall; that is, something that was future
-I thought I should have died.

II. Future contingency—If he should come, what shall
I do?

III. Modest opinion-I should think so.

you paid too much.

IV. Duty-I know I should go.

I should say

Ought is a stronger form of expressing duty-I ought to go. Some grammarians rank it as an auxiliary; but as it always governs an infinitive, it should be considered a separate verb. (See Syntax, page 94, section 300.)

107. MAY belongs to the potential mood, and implies

1. Liberty-You may go.

II. Possibility-They may come yet, though it is late. III. Purpose-He writes rapidly, that he may finish in time.

IV. Wish-May you be happy!

108. MIGHT has the same uses as may, but it is used after the past tense, expressed or understood; whereas may is employed after the present, future, and perfect-He went that he might Might is also used after a present tense, when doubt is expressed-I am sure he might go, if he liked. I think he

see.

might pay the sum.

Might have shews past opportunity-I knew, when he paid me, that I might have had the money a

year before.

109. CAN expresses

1. Power-He can lift the load.

II. Possibility-Can these things be?

110. COULD is used to express

1. The past of can—He could not walk yesterday.
II. Present power conditionally-He could to-day if he
would.

111. MUST denotes necessity-You must confess.
112. LET is used as a sign of the imperative-

1. To permit Let him retire.

II. To entreat-Let me go.

113. GET is now in good use as an auxiliary in passive forms -To get dressed.

CONJUGATION OF VERBS.

VOICES OR FORMS OF THE VERB.

114. Every transitive verb may be used in two forms-usually called the active and passive voices.

115. The active expresses that the agent, subject, or nominative does the action to another-I punish him.'

116. The passive shews that the subject suffers or sustains the action from another- He is punished by me.'

Intransitive verbs have no passive voice; for as the action is confined to the agent, and as therefore no object is acted on, there is clearly no need of a form to express the object as a subject suffering.

MOODS OR MODES OF THE VERB.

117. There are generally reckoned five moods—

118. The infinitive, which represents the verb in a general manner, unlimited by number or person, and has the word to expressed or understood before it; as-to hope.

119. The indicative, which indicates, asserts, or declares something concerning its subject; as-I hope.

120. The imperative, which commands, entreats, or permits; as-hope on, hope ever.

121. The potential, which expresses what is possible, probable, or necessary, by prefixing may, can, must, might, could, would, or should; as-I may hope.

122. The subjunctive, which expresses what is not actually the case, but is supposed or desired. It is generally preceded by the conjunction-if, though, lest, till, or that; as-though I hope.

It does not follow, however, that every verb preceded by these conjunctions is in the subjunctive mood. See page 95, section 306.

EXAMPLES.

(118.) He continued to speak. They saw him (to) enter. To be good is to be happy. The verb to write is active or transitive. (119.) Old men forget. Cæsar loved me.

(120.) Go, mark him well. Lend me your ears. (121.) may go. Greece might still be free.

pause.

Let him write.
He can come. I must

(122.) If he be killed, we shall perish. Oh, that they were wise! Love not sleep, lest thou come to poverty. Though he fall, he shall not be utterly cast down.

TENSES OF VERBS.

123. Tense or time is present, past, and future; but these divisions admit of considerable modification, so that at least six tenses are generally enumerated. In English, the past tense only is formed by a change in the verb itself, but all the rest by the combination of auxiliaries with either the root of the principal verb, or one of its participles.

TENSES OF THE INDICATIVE MOOD.

124. There are generally reckoned six tenses in the indicative mood:

:

The Present

...

Past
Perfect
Pluperfect..
Future.

Future Perfect...

I write, or do write.

I wrote.

I have written.

I had written.

I shall or will write.

I shall have written.

Besides the progressive forms, which express shades of difference in the time-I am writing, I was writing, &c.

TENSES OF THE POTENTIAL MOOD.

125. The four tenses usually attributed to the potential mood

are

The Present,

I

may, can, or must write.

Past, .... I might, could, would, or should write.
Perfect,.. I may or can have written.

Pluperfect, I might, could, would, or should have written.

With the progressive forms-I may be writing, &c.

TENSES OF THE SUBJUNCTIVE MOOD.

126. The Subjunctive Mood has two tensesThe Present, If I write, if I be writing, if I do write. Past, If I wrote, if I were writing, if I did write.