2257. They consist in screws, whose common sizes are from three quarters of an inch up to 4 inches in length. They are sold by the dozen.

2258. Iron butt hinges, whose name is probably derived from their butting close surface to surface when closed, used for hanging doors and shutters. They are made both of iron and brass, the former varying in size from 14 to 4 inches in length; the latter from 1 inch to 4 inches. These, as well as all other hinges, are in size necessarily proportioned to the magnitude and consequent weight of the shutters or doors they are to carry; and it is to be observed, that for the well-hanging of a door or shutter, the size of the hinge should be rather on the outside of enough than under the mark. There is a species of hinge used for doors called the rising joint hinge, a contrivance in which the pivot, having on it a short portion of a spiral thread, and the part to which the door is fixed having a correspondent mass, the door in opening rises, and clears the carpet or other impediment usually placed on the floor. The projecting brass butt is used when the shutter or door is required to clear some projection, and thus, when opened, to lie completely back in a plane parallel to its direction when shut. All hinges are purchased from the ironmonger by the pair.

Besides the hinges above mentioned are those called cross garnets, whose form is, that of a lying sidewise. These are only used on the commonest external doors, and are made from 10 to 20 inches, varying in their dimensions by differences of two inches. Hhinges, the shape of the letter, showing their form as well as the origin of their name. These in their sizes range from 3 to 8 inches by differences of an inch. hinges (H and L conjoined), whose form is implied by their name, and whose sizes are from 6 to 12 inches, proceeding by inches. Parliament hinges are made of cast and wrought iron, from 3 to 5 inches, proceeding in size by half inches.

2259. Rough rod bolts are those in which there is no continued barrel for the bolt, and are for the most common service. Their sizes begin with a length of three inches, and proceed by inches up to a length of 10 inches; such, at least, are their common sizes. Bright rod bolts run of the same sizes as the last; and, as the name indicates, the bolt is polished and finished, so as to make them a better fastening, as far as appearance is concerned. The spring plate bolt is contrived with a spring to keep the bolt up to its work, but one which so soon gets out of order that we wonder it is now manufactured or used. It is made of lengths from 3 to 8 inches, by variations of an inch in size. Barrelled bolts are those in which the whole length of the bolt is enclosed in a continued cylindrical barrel, and are superior to all others in use, as well as the most finished in their appearance. Their common sizes are from 6 to 12 inches, varying by steps of an inch. All the bolts above mentioned are sold per piece by the ironmonger, as are those called flush bolts, a name given to such as are let into the surface to which they are applied, so as to stand flush with it. They are mostly made of brass, and are of two different thicknesses, viz. half and three quarter inch. Their lengths vary from 2 to 12 inches, and occasionally, as circumstances may require, as in book-case doors and French sashes, to a greater length. But for French casements, what is called the Espaniolette bolt, a contrivance whose origin is French, though much improved in its manufacture here, is now more generally in use.

2260. Pullies, for hanging sashes and shutters, are made of iron or brass, or with brass sheaves or brass axles. Their sizes are from one inch and a half to two inches and a half in diameter.

2261. The varieties of locks, their contrivances for security, and their construction, are so many, that to describe them minutely would require almost a work of itself. All that the architect has to deal with, for common purposes in building, we shall mention. For fastening places where particular security is requisite, as strong closets for plate or cash, some of the patented locks should be used, and we must leave this matter for inquiry in the hands of the architect. Every patentee says his invention is the best. We nevertheless believe, notwithstanding the boasts of all the inventors, no lock has yet appeared which an expert locksmith acquainted with its construction will not be able to pick. The locks in common use are stock locks, whose box is usually of wood, and whose sizes vary from 7 to 10 inches. Dead locks, whose sizes are from 4 to 7 inches, and so called from the key shooting the bolt home dead, without a spring. Cupboard locks of 3, 3, and 4 inches in size. Iron rim locks, whose box or case is made of iron, and which are fitted on to one of the sides of a door, and whose sizes are from 6 to 8 inches. Of those made of the last-named size, there are some, as also of 9 inches, which are used for external doors, called iron rim drawback locks. For the doors of all well-finished apartments, mortice locks are used. These take their name from being morticed into the thickness of the door, and being thus hidden. To these either plain or fancy furniture, that is, nobs and escocheons, are affixed. Above and below them finger plates are generally directed to be placed, to prevent the door being soiled in the places where it is mostly laid hold of.

2262. The different sorts of latches in use are the thumb latch, which receives its name

from the thumb being placed on the lever to raise its latch; the Norfolk latch; the fourinch bow latch with brass nobs; the brass pulpit latch; and the mortice latch.

2263. Besides the articles already mentioned, spikes, holdfasts, and wall hooks, door springs of various sorts, door chains and barrels, thumb screws and other shutter and sash fastenings, brass turn buckles, closet knobs, brass flush rings, shutter bars, brass rollers, bars with latchets, shelf brackets, drawer handles, wrought iron bars, sash lines and weights, besides many others, are furnished by the ironmonger. In treating on specifications, in a subsequent section, it will be seen how the several articles of smithery and ironmongery are applied.

2264. Bolts, straps, and other exposed iron-work are preserved from the action of moisture on them by the following mixture: To two quarts of boiling oil add half a pound of litharge, putting in small quantities at a time, and cautiously. Let it simmer over the fire two or three hours; then strain it, and add a quarter of a pound of finely-pounded resin and a pound of white lead, keeping it at a gentle heat till the whole is well incorporated. It is to be used hot. A composition of oil and resin and finely levigated brickdust is found useful in preserving iron from rust. It is to be mixed, and used as a paint of the usual consistence.

SECT. XI.

FOUNDERY.

2265. The very general use of cast iron by the architect has induced us to give, in a previous section, a succinct account of the common operations of foundery, or the art of casting metal into different forms. We do not think it necessary, therefore, to do more than refer the reader to Chap. II. Sect V. of this Book (1763, et seq.). The foundery of statues, which is among the most difficult of its branches, belongs exclusively to the sculptor, and is usually carried on in bronze.

2266. To gain a proper knowledge of the operations of the founder, the student should attend a few castings at the foundery itself, which will be more useful to him than all which in words we can express on the subject.

SECT. XII.

PAINTING, GILDING, AND PAPER-HANGING, ETC.

2267. Painting is the art of covering the surfaces of wood, iron, and other materials with a mucilaginous substance, which, acquiring hardness by exposure to the air, protects the material to which it is applied from the effects of the weather.

2268. The requisite tools of the painter are- brushes of hog's bristles, of various sizes suitable to the work; a scraping or pallet knife; earthen pots to hold the colours; tin can for turpentine; a grinding stone and muller, &c. The stone should be hard and closegrained, about 18 inches in diameter, and of sufficient weight to keep it steady. The knots, especially of fir, in painting new work, will destroy its good effect if they be not first properly killed, as the painters term it. The best way of effecting this is by laying upon those knots which retain any turpentine a considerable substance of lime immediately after it is slaked. This is done with a stopping knife, and the process dries and burns out the turpentine which the knots contain. When the lime has remained on about four and twenty hours, it is to be scraped off, and the knots must be painted over with what is called size knotting, a composition of red and white lead ground very fine with water on a stone, and mixed with strong double glue size, and used warm. If doubts exist of their still remaining unkilled, they may be then painted over with red and white lead ground very fine in linseed oil, and mixed with a portion of that oil, taking care to rub them down with sand paper each time after covering them when dry; so that they may not appear more raised than the other parts. When the knotting is completed, the priming colour is laid on. The priming colour is composed of white and a little red lead mixed thin with linseed oil. One pound of it will cover from 18 to 20 yards. When the primer is quite dry, if the work is intended to be finished white, mix white lead and a very small portion of red with linseed oil, adding a little quantity of spirits of turpentine for second colouring the work. Of this second primer, one pound will cover about 10 to 12 square yards. The work should now remain for some days to harden; and before laying on the third coat, it should be rubbed down with fine sand paper, and stopped with oil putty wherever it may be necessary. the knots still show through, they should be covered with silver leaf laid on with japanned gold size. The third coat is white lead mixed with linseed oil and turpentine in equal portions, and a pound will cover about 8 square yards. If the work is not to be finished

If

white, the other requisite colour will of course be mixed with the white lead, as in the case of four coats being used. When the work is to be finished with four coats, the finishing coat should be of good old white lead as the basis, thinned with bleached linseed oil and spirits of turpentine; one of oil to two of turpentine. If the work is to be finished dead white, the very best old lead must be used, and thinned entirely with spirits of turpentine. 2269. When stucco is to be painted, it will require one more coat than wood-work; the last coat being mixed, if the work is as usually executed, with half spirits of turpentine and half oil, for the reception of the finishing coat of all turpentine or flatting. If the work be not flatted, the finishing coat should be with one part oil and two of turpentine: It would be impossible to enter into the details which are to be observed in painting walls of fancy colours; all that can be said on this point in instruction to the architect is, that when fancy colours, as they are called, which in these days a painter construes as anything but white and a tinge of ochre or umber, each coat must incline, as it is laid on, more and more to the colour which the work is intended to bear when finished.

2270. In repainting old work, it should be well rubbed down with dry pumice stone, and then carefully dusted off, and when requisite, the cracks and openings must be well stopped with oil putty. After this, a mixture of white, with a very small portion of red lead, with equal parts of oil and turpentine, is used to paint the work, which the painters technically call second colouring old work. After this, the work being dry, a mixture of old white lead, adding a small portion of blue black in a medium of half bleached oil and half turpentine, is used for finishing, or, if flatting be intended, the former preparation will be suitable for receiving dead white or any fancy colour. The same process will serve for stuccoed walls, observing that, if more coats be required, the mixture of half oil and half turpentine is proper.

2271. In respect to outside work, the use of turpentine is to be avoided, for turpentine is more susceptible of water than oil, and thence not so well calculated to preserve work exposed to the weather. Oil, however, having from its nature a natural tendency to discolour white, that is necessarily finished with a portion of half oil and half turpentine ; but in dark colours this is not necessary, and in such cases, boiled oil, with a little turpentine, is the best, or indeed boiled oil only.

2272. White lead is the principal basis of all stone colours. If the finishing colour is white, nothing but white lead should be employed. Lead colours are formed by a mixture of white lead with lamp black; all colours, however, that are called fancy colours, have white lead for their basis, chocolates, black, brown, and wainscot only excepted.

2273. There is a process used by painters, termed clear-coaling, which is executed with white lead ground in water, and mixed with size. This is used instead of a coat of paint; but it has not sufficient body usefully to answer the end for which it is usually employed. It scales off, and in damp situations its colour almost immediately changes. The only occasions wherein it is useful, are where the work is greasy and smoky, in which the use of it prepares better for the reception of paint. It should, however, never be employed upon joiner's work or cornices to ceilings, where much enrichment is found; for of all things, it destroys the sharpness and beauty of the ornaments. Painters are very fond of using it; but their endeavours to persuade the architect should always be resisted, except in cases of absolute necessity, namely, that in which a fair appearance cannot otherwise be given to the work. Some colours dry badly, black especially, and in damp weather they require a drier, as it is called, which may be made from equal parts of copperas and litharge, ground very fine, and added according to circumstances. 2274. Drying oil is made as follows: To 1 gallon of linseed oil, put 1 lb. of red lead, 1 lb. of umber, and 1 lb. of litharge, and boil them together for two or three hours. Great care must be taken that the oil does not boil over, on account of the danger to which the premises would be thereby exposed. Thus, in a pot capable of holding fifteen gallons, it would not be prudent to boil more than one-third of that quantity.

:

2275. Painters' putty is made of whiting and linseed oil, well beaten together. 2276. The extra or fancy colours used in painting are drabs, French greys, peach blossom, lilac, light greens, patent greens, blues, vermilion, lake, &c. All imitations, too,

of woods and marbles, are executed by the painter, and these are always covered with one or more coats of varnish.

2277. In outside work and stairs, the process of sanding is frequently adopted. It is performed with fine sand thrown on the last coat of paint while wet. The method of gilding is either through a medium of oil or water, the former being that most used in gilding the decorations of houses. The gold, of various thickness, is furnished by the goldbeater in books of 25 leaves, each leaf being 3 by 3 in., or in the book, 1 ft. 6 in. and of an inch superficial.

2278. With painting is often connected the practice of paper-hanging by the same artificer. The various sorts of paper used for lining walls, it would be useless to describe. We have only to mention that papers are printed in pieces of 12 yards in length, and 1 foot 8 inches wide; hence, 1 yard in length contains 5 feet superficial; therefore, any

number of superficial feet divided by 60 (the length 36 x 1 ft. 8 ins.) will give the number of pieces wanted for the work. A ream of printed paper of 20 quires of 24 sheets to the quire is equal to 28 pieces of paper, or each piece contains 17 sheets.

SECT. XIII.

SPECIFICATIONS.

2279. The importance of an accurate specification or description of the materials and work to be used and performed in the execution of a building, is almost as great as the preparation of the designs for it. The frequent cost of works above the estimated sum, and its freedom from extra charges on winding up the accounts, will mainly depend on the clearness, fulness, and accuracy of the specifications; though it is but justice to the architect to state that extras arise almost as often from the caprice of his employer during the progress of the work, as from the neglect or carelessness of the architect in making the specification. A specification should be made in all cases of new designs, additions, or alterations in reference to designs, which, the more they are given in working drawings by the architect, the better will it be for his employer, no less than for the artificer.

£280. It is impossible to frame a set of directions which shall be applicable in all cases. What we here propose to do is, to give something like a list or skeleton of the component parts of buildings, from which the architect may select such as are suitable to the particular case whereon he may be engaged. We have not carried this into the repairs and alterations of houses, because, with difference of application, we apprehend what we are placing before the student will enable him to carry the system forward in such cases without any difficulty. The works of each artificer are as follow:

2281. EXCAVATOR. To take down any old buildings and impediments that may be on the site of the new works. If any old materials are to be used again, he is to clean, sort, and stack them for re-using in such parts of the premises as may be directed. The rubbish, as well from these as from any superfluous earth that may come out of the basement and foundations, if not wanted for raising the ground or for other purposes, he is to cart away, either wholly, or to such part of the premises as may require it, on direction to that effect, as well as all rubbish that may accumulate in executing the works.

To dig out for basement story (where one is to be) for the foundations, areas, drains, floors, and all other works requisite. To beat down to a solid consistence the ground forming the beds of the trenches for receiving the foundations and walls, and after they are in, he is to fill in and ram down the ground with wooden rammers; to level, and to do such other rough groundwork as may be necessary for forming the sectional ground lines shown upon the drawings. In basements no earth is to be left nearer than 9 inches to any floor or other timbers, such cavities being by the specification to be filled in with dry lime core. And, finally, he is to leave the ground altogether free from all useless soil or other materials.

To bale out or pump out and remove all soil and water which may be necessary for laying the foundations, whether arising from springs, drains, cesspools, rain, or otherwise, and to be answerable for all accidental damage that may occur whilst the foundations and walls are carrying up, as also, when buildings adjoin, for all damage that may occur to neighbouring buildings.

2282. BRICKLAYER. The brickwork is to be executed with the very best hard well-burnt grey stocks (or kiln-burnt red stock bricks, if the others are not to be had), to be laid in flat joints, and so that every four courses shall not exceed 11 inches in height. When better bricks are used for facing external walls, they are to be specified as best marle stocks, second marle stocks, or Suffolk white bricks, as the case may be, in which case it must be specified that no headers of the facing are to be cut off, except where absolutely necessary to form good bond. Fronts so faced must be described to be either carried up with a neat flat parallel ruled joint, or to be afterwards tuckjoint pointed if a very finished face is wanted, though the latter is not altogether a very sound practice. In old work the joints may be described to be raked out, the brickwork washed, stained, and tuck-joint pointed.

No place or samile bricks to be allowed in any part of the work, under a penalty of two shillings for every such brick that may be detected to have been used.

The mortar is to be compounded of stone lime and sharp clean drift sand (if the work be of importance), to be ground in a pug-mill, or otherwise to be well tempered and beaten with wooden beaters, and to be in the proportion of one heaped bushel of lime to two of sand.

BRICKLAYER. When the foundations are bad, concrete should be provided, and is thus described: it is to be formed in the proportion of six parts of Thames or other unscreened clean ballast, and one part of fresh-burnt Dorking (or other) stone lime, beaten to powder on the premises, and unslaked. They are to be thoroughly mixed in small quantities at a time, the lime at mixing being slaked with as small a quantity of water as possible. The concrete, after mixing, is to be dropped from a stage to be formed by the contractor, so as to fall into the trench provided for its reception from a height of at least 12 feet. The thickness of the conrete thus executed may vary from 4 feet to 18 inches in height, according to the badness or goodness of the foundation.

English bond should be directed, and the work should be specified to be flushed up at every course with mortar. No bats to be allowed except for closures; and for sound work every fourth course to be grouted with liquid mortar, and in the foundations every course, or at least every second course. The walls, chimneys, their shafts and other works are to be carried up of the height and thicknesses and in the manner shown and figured on the several plans and drawings, together with all brick work requisite for the completion of the house. If the architect prefers, he may particularise these, but the drawings will show his meaning better. When the work is within the bills of mortality, and not required to be of particularly great solidity, it will be sufficient to describe that the thicknesses of the walls, their heights above the roofs, &c., shall be conformable to the regulations contained in the Building Act of the 14th Geo. III. c. 78.

When the work is to appear without a stone or plaster facing, there must be described rubbed and guaged arches for all the external openings that will be seen in the principal fronts, of 9 or 14 inches in depth (or more according to their span), accurately cut, and set closely in front, in back, and on their sofites. To the other openings the arches are to be described plain arches, closely set; those which appear externally to be tuck-pointed on their outside faces. Over all lintels, too, in external walls, the specification should provide uncut accurately formed arches. When fascias are formed of brick, they must be described with their projections, as also all cornices formed by the arrangements of bricks, whereof the heads may be required to show as modillions; but a drawing should, for the latter, always appear on the drawing or specification.

When the shafts of chimneys are carried up above the roof, out of the common way, they must be referred to drawings; otherwise what relates to them and their flues is merely described as follows:-Turn, parget, and core the chimney flues, and finish the shafts with salient courses 6 inches in height, with double plaintile creesing thereto, and for each flue provide and fix a large-sized chimney mould; the upper courses of the shafts above the creesing to be laid in Parker's cement. In most cases, now, the flues are covered with square chimney moulds, cast of Parker's cement, and may be described as plain or moulded, and otherwise ornamented. When parapets are not to be coped with stone or cement, they must be described as finished with double plaintile creesing, and a brick on edge thereover, all laid in Parker's cement.

Generally, where weather is to be provided against in upper courses and elsewhere, the laying in Parker's cement must be described.

Turn trimmers of 4-inch brickwork to all the fire-places for receiving the hearths throughout the building, except where the hearths lie on ground in basement stories. Where there are basement stories, or the story is on the ground. Describe piers 9 inches square, or continued walls 9 inches thick, to carry the sleepers whereon the joists of the floor or the courses of paving stone are to lie; in either case the cavity is to be filled, for at least 9 inches in height, with dry lime core. Bed in mortar all bond timber, wall or other plates, lintels, wood, bricks, templets, stone, or other work connected with the brickwork. All the door and window frames to be bedded in and pointed round with lime and hair mortar. Execute all requisite beam fitting.

When the building is faced with stone, or stone dressings are used; to the above must be added -- back up and fill in solid with brickwork all the stone work and iron work that is set in the brickwork.

If cornices, fascias, &c. are to be run in Parker's cement, or other sort of plaster, the instruction is Prepare and fix brickwork, and such Yorkshire stone slabs and other materials as may be necessary for forming the several external cornices, pediments, strings, sills, and dressings to openings, in Parker's cement, or other cement, as the case may be, as shown on the drawings.

Turn arches in cement (if wanted) for carrying entrance or other steps. Provide all brickwork for stone steps. Turn vaults of brickwork (describe thickness not less