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ceiling. On this floor are two wardrobes and other conveniences. Above the last-mentioned room is the king's room, 21 feet square and 20 high, with an elliptical ceiling, There are on this floor a vestibule, two wardrobes, and other conveniences. On the third floor is placed the chapel, for a priest who occasionally says mass is attached to the establishment, and this is 21 feet in diameter, domed, and 40 feet high, and lighted by eight windows. There is an eye in the dome through which is seen the ornamental roof of the room above, and that is 14 feet diameter and 27 feet high. This is used by the lightkeepers as a watch room. Over it rises an apartment, which is immediately under the light room, used for holding sufficient fuel for one night's consumption, and capable itself of being converted into a place for the exhibition of a light in case of repairs being required to any extent in the main light room, which, as we have said, is immediately over it, and is surrounded by a balcony and circular stone parapet. The height from the floor to the top of the cupola of the original lantern or light room was 17 feet, and being unglazed, the smoke was carried out on either side in the direction of the wind. The roof, moreover, formed a kind of chimney in the form of a spire, terminating with a ball. The height of the light room, which was entirely of stone, was 31 feet from the light room floor to the ball on the top of the spire. The fuel first used for the light was oak, after which pit coal was introduced; but in modern times lamps and reflectors have succeeded the last, and the light is now seen at a proper distance.

2930. In England the student may turn to the Eddystone lighthouse, by the celebrated Smeaton, not only as an object of great beauty, but of

that soundness of construction, which is the most essen

tial requisite in works of this kind.

The general form is seen in fig. 1032. This is a fine illustration of fitness producing beauty. The resistance it affords against the waves arises from the beautiful curved line which leads them up it instead of being broken against it. Indeed, in stormy weather, the waves actually roll up the side, and fall in a contrary curve over the top of the lighthouse. The beds of the masonry are so laid and dovetailed and joggled into the rock itself as to become a part of it. The foundation stone of it was laid on the 12th of June, 1757, and it was first lighted on the 16th of October, 1759. A narrative of the work was published by Mr. Smeaton, to which for detail the reader is referred. The two lower stories are used as store rooms; the next above serves for the kitchen, above which is the bedroom, over which is the light room.

[graphic]

are.

2931. Thus, we see, there is no reason why lighthouses should not be beautifully formed structures, instead of absurd misshapen masses of masonry, as they generally The attempt to make them resemble columns is intolerable; they should possess, according to the different situations, a character peculiar to themselves : hence the application of a column for the purpose is the worst of abuses. The North Foreland lighthouse, whose plan is polygonal, would be a good example had the details been properly attended to in the design. We do not here touch upon the mode of lighting, which has of late years occupied much attention, having considered the duty of the architect performed when he has provided a beautiful, lasting, and secure fabric for the reception of the lights.

Fig. 1032.

SECT. XIII.

ABATTOIRS OR PUBLIC SLAUGHTER-HOUSES.

2932. It may be thought unnecessary to assign a section in this work to the consideration of a species of building unfortunately unknown to this country, in which its non-employment is truly a reproach. The improvements still in progress however in the metropolis justify, we hope, the expectation that the paltry interests of a particular class, and the disgraceful opposition of the corporation of the city of London, will not much longer prevail to prevent the removal of Smithfield market, and the establishment of public slaughter-houses or abattoirs round the different outskirts of the metropolis. It is the duty of the legislature

to interfere and stop the danger and unwholesomeness of the present practice, and not to leave it to individuals to improve the comforts and security of London and its suburbs. The cemeteries established by companies have done much: we hope to see the day when the subject in question will be forced on the government, without respect to the corporation tolls of the market at Smithfield.

2933. The accidents arising from overdriving cattle through the narrow streets of Paris, and the infectious effluvia from the slaughter-houses often causing contagious maladies in their neighbourhood, induced the French government, in 1811, to execute a project which had been entertained for nearly a century previously, that of removing all the slaughter-houses from the heart of their capital. The result of this determination has been, not only the prevention of all cause of complaint of the former inconveniences, but has produced a set of buildings bearing a character of grandeur and magnificence proportionate to their destination. It was a worthy exercise of the power of the government; it has obviated the disgraceful sights almost every day witnessed in London, sights tending to deprive the lower classes of humanity, and to render them ferocious, to corrupt the mind, to offend the eye, and to injure the public health. Without strictly adhering to the term abattoir, which would more properly signify a slaughter-house where the cattle are slaughtered, we mean by our proposition, not only the place for killing the cattle, but an establishment where, after they are killed, under the inspection of proper officers, the skins are arranged for sale, as well as the tallow obtained from the fat, before these are distributed to the respective trades.

2934. Political economists have doubted whether an individual ought to be restricted in the exercise of his industry wherever he may think it most conducive to his interest; we are however inclined to apply to the principle the maxim of the lawyers, “sic utere tuo ut alienum non lædas," and think that disagreeable and unwholesome establishments should be removed from all large cities. The experiment however, at all events, has been most successfully made in Paris, where butchers are no longer allowed to kill their cattle, except in the public abattoirs. For the purpose five open airy spots have been selected in the outskirts of the city, corresponding in size to the demand of those parts of the town to which they are correspondent. Those of Menilmontant and of Montmartre are the most considerable and extensive; but the rest are constructed on similar plans, in which there is no difference except in the number and extent of the buildings. We shall therefore describe generally the first named, that of Menilmontant.

2935. The slaughter-house of Menilmontant at Paris is situated on a declivity, which contributes to its good drainage, and the consequent salubrity of the establishment. It stands on a site about 700 feet by about 620 feet, being insulated between four streets. Through an iron railing, about 108 feet in extent, flanked by two lodges, or pavillons, in which are accommodated the officers of the establishment and their bureaux, is the principal entrance of the edifice. On entering from this a large square space presents itself, from the centre whereof may be seen the whole of the buildings, twenty-three in number, composing the abattoir. This court is about 315 feet broad, and on its great sides about 475 feet long, and on its right and left are four double buildings, separated by a road which traverses the whole ground parallel to the principal façade. These are the slaughter-houses, each whereof is about 200 feet long by 136 feet in breadth, and they are separated by a paved court, in the direction of their length, so inclined as to carry off the filth, such court dividing them into two piles of building, each of which contains eight slaughter-houses for the particular use of the butchers. Each slaughter-house is lighted and ventilated from openings in the front walls. Above them are attics for drying the skins and depositing the tallow, and to keep them cool the flat roofs project very considerably. Behind the slaughterhouses, and parallel to them, are two sheepfolds, and at their extremities two stables, each of which contains lofts for the hay, and on each side of the court complete the two masses of building which compose the design. At the end of the court is a convenient watering place, and two folds for the first distribution of the cattle; and also two insulated buildings for melting the tallow. These are intersected by a broad corridor, giving access to four separate melting-houses, with vaulted cellars, which serve as coolers. Beyond these, parallel to the enclosing wall, are two long buildings, divided into many warehouses on the ground and first floor, and standing on cellars, in which the undressed leather is kept, the upper floor being destined for the reception of calves' and sheep skins. The last point to be noticed is a large double reservoir of water, of masonry, carried on two series of vaults, which serve as stands for carriages. A steam-engine between the two basins pumps the water into the reservoir. The basins are about 323 feet in length. Happe was the architect; and the cost was something above 120,000l. The rent which some years ago the five establishments yielded to the city was about 12,000l. per annum.

2936. The description we have given shows the general distribution of the buildings, which are the subject of the section. Although general, we apprehend that, with the particular information of which in every case the architect must possess himself, enough has been said on the subject.

SECT. XIV.

EXCHANGES.

2937. An exchange is a place of meeting and resort for the merchants of a city to transact the affairs relating to their trading. We are not aware that the ancients had any edifices exactly in their destination resembling the modern exchange, as used by us in these days; there is, indeed, every reason to believe that the ancient basilica served at the same time for the accommodation of the officers of the law and for the assembling of the merchants.

2938. All modern cities with any pretension to commerce have some place appropriated to the reception of the merchant, to which at a certain hour he resorts. Sometimes we find it a place surrounded with porticoes and planted with trees. Often it is a building, including several porticos on the ground floor, surrounded by offices for the bankers and money-changers, which latter use has given among us the name of exchange to the building.

2939. The Exchange at Amsterdam seems for a long time to have prevailed as the model for all others. It was commenced in 1608, and finished in 1613, and its architect was Cornelis Dankers de Ry. It is about 271 feet long, and about 152 feet wide. The whole edifice is supported on three large arches, under which flow as many canals. On the ground floor is a portico surrounding a court, above which are halls supported on forty-six piers. The divisions which they form are numbered and assigned each to a particular nation or class of merchants. In the court, and within the enclosure, is the place of meeting for mercantile affairs. At the top is another large hall, and a warehouse for various kinds of merchandise.

2940. The exchange is, perhaps, next in importance to the cathedral of the city, and should be commensurate in appearance and accommodation with its wealth and consequence; it should, moreover, if possible, be placed in the most central part. Such was Sir Christopher Wren's idea in forming the plan of London after the conflagration. He considered the forum of the ancients to be the true model upon which a modern exchange might be engrafted, and we think he was correct. Any edifice which in appearance resembles an ancient temple is unfit in character, and shows puerility and poverty of imagination in the designer. Porticoes are the principal features of such a building, and the variety in which they may be used for the purpose is infinite, and will afford ample for the artist's talent.

scope

2941. No offices or shops, as about to be constructed in the new Royal Exchange, for the purpose of obtaining rent, should be connected with the fabric, save only as in Paris, for example, a Tribunal de Commerce with its accessories, an establishment much wanted in England; and perhaps in addition to this, in a maritime country like ours, a large hall and offices for the transaction of business relating to the shipping interest.

2942. In London and other places it has been usual to leave the court of resort open to the heavens; an absurd practice, which, we suppose, because it was so before, has been readopted in the exchange about to be rebuilt in this city. The French are wiser, and though the weather is, generally speaking, much finer in France than it is here, they build their exchange with a roof, for the comfort of those that use it. If, however, our merchants prefer exposure to the inclemency of the seasons, it is not our business to complain of the fancy.

2943. As we consider the Bourse at Paris an admirable model, both in distribution and design, we shall briefly here describe it. The edifice in question was begun in 1808, under the designs of Brongniart, and completed by Labarre at a much protracted period. The general form on the plan is a parallelogram of 212 feet by 126 feet. It is surrounded by an unbroken peristyle of sixty-six Corinthian columns, supporting an entablature and attic. The peristyle forms a covered gallery, to which the ascent is by a flight of steps extending the whole width of the western front. The intercolumniations on the walls are filled in with two tiers, one above the other, of arched windows, separated by a Doric entablature, and surmounted by a decorated frieze. The roof is formed entirely of iron and copper. In the centre of the parallelogram is the Salle de la Bourse, or great hall, 116 feet long and 76 feet broad, wherein the merchants and brokers assemble. The Doric order is that used with arcades round the sides, and between the arcades are inscribed the names of the principal mercantile cities in the world. The ceiling is formed by a cove, and in the centre a large skylight serves for lighting the great hall just described. It is rich in sculpture, and decorated with monochrome paintings, to imitate bassi relievi, sixteen in the whole, that is, five on each long and three on each short side. They are all allegorical. The hall conveniently contains 2000 persons. At its eastern end is a circular space railed off for the convenience of the agens de change: these only are admitted within it, and to it there is

and syndicate of the agens de change, for the courtiers de commerce, and a hall of meeting for the latter. On the left is an ample staircase leading to the gallery, supported by Dorie columns, and to the hall of the Tribunal de Commerce, with its several apartments and waiting rooms. From the gallery, as on the ground floor, a corridor extends round the Salle, communicating with the Chamber of Commerce, the Court of Bankruptcy, and other public offices. The cost of this very elegant and splendid building was about 326,000l. ; but the merchants and city of London disgrace themselves by allowing 150,000l. for a similar purpose here; and even for this sum they cut up their building into little slices, to reimburse themselves by rents for the miserable outlay. So much for the spirit and liberality of the British merchant !

SECT. XV.

CUSTOM-HOUSES.

2944. It is almost unnecessary to inform our readers that a custom-house is an establishment for receiving the duties, or, as they are called, customs levied on merchandise imported into a country, as well as of regulating the bounty or drawback on goods exported. According, therefore, to the importance and wealth of a city, the building to receive it is of considerable consequence. The first point that immediately presents itself is, that it should be provided with spacious warehouses for holding the merchandise which arrives, and in which it is, as it were, impounded till the duties are paid; and next, that there must be provided ample accommodation for the officers who are to supervise the levying of the imposts. Now, these being the data, it is manifest that there can be no building so subject to modification in every respect as a custom-house, and that that which might be well suited to a small town or city, looking to its trade, would be ridiculous either in excess or smallness in another. Yet there are general principles which should guide the student in designing the smallest as well as the largest establishment of this sort, and these are contained in the two maxims, of ample capaciousness for the merchandise to be received into the warehouses, and a panoptical view, on the part of the proper officers, of that which passes in the establishment. Without these requisites, a customhouse is an ill-planned building; but it is not to be supposed that such an observation can apply to an establishment of this nature in a metropolis like London, the subdivisions and details of whose commerce have found as yet all the delegations of the customs in the various docks and sufferance wharf still even too small for the commerce of the country, and have induced the government to extend the collection of the dues beyond the central establishment. We must, however, return to the custom-house calculated for a port of ordinary size, and not that of a metropolis like London, though presently we must refer to what on that has been thought necessary for our guidance in smaller matters. Security against fire must be strictly attended to. The warehouses and covered places for examining and stowing the goods should therefore be arched in brick or stone, and should, moreover, be as much as possible on the ground floor. The officers for the public and heads of the establishment may be over them on the first floor. Both of these are, of course, to be regulated in size by the extent of trade in the place. The general character should be that of simplicity; decoration is unsuited, and should be very sparingly employed. species of composition most suitable seems to be pointed out in arcades and arched openings. The site should be as near as may be to the river or port, so that the merchandise may be landed and housed with as little labour as possible.

The

2945. The following is a general view of the apartments and offices of the London Custom House. The long room, which is the principal public room for the entries &c., is 190 feet long and 66 wide. This, as well as the rooms next enumerated, are on the first or principal floor, viz. a pay office for duties, treasury, bench officers or commissioners' rooms, secretary's room, rooms for the inspector general, surveyor of shipping, registrar of shipping, surveyor of acts of navigation, strong rooms, comptrollers, outward and inward, surveyor of works; Trinity light office, bond office, board room, chairman's room, committee room and plantation clerk's office. On the ground floor are the following offices: for minute clerks, clerk of papers, petitions, messengers, landing surveyors, wood farm office, tide waiters, tide surveyors, inspectors of river, guagers, landing waiters, coast waiters, coast office long room, coast bond office, coffee office, housekeeper, searchers, merchants and brokers' rooms, comptrolling searchers, appointers of the weighers and office for the plantation department. Besides these apartments there are warehouses for the mer. chandise.

2946. The above long list will give a notion of what would be wanted on a smaller scale; but on such matters the special instructions on each case must be the guide to the architect in making his design. Many of the above offices would, of course, be unnecessary

in a small port, neither would the dimensions be so large as in the example quoted. The staircases, corridors, and halls must be spacious in all cases, the building being one for the service of the public.

SECT. XVI.

THEATRES.

2947. A taste for dramatic representations prevailed at a very early period among the people of antiquity, and this was not diminished by the introduction of Christianity, even when the temples were deserted and paganism seemed extinct. The destruction of these, however, was its concluding triumph. It would be a difficult matter to fix the precise date of the abolition of the pagan theatre, but it seems likely to have resulted rather from the falling into decay of the old theatres than from a disinclination on the part of the people to the pleasure they received at them. It is not, however, the object of this section to trace the history of the theatre; though we think it right to say a few more words on the subject. With the revival of the arts, the taste for scenic representations appeared with the literature on which they are dependent. In Italy we find, therefore, the drama at this period represented in very large enclosures, such as the amphitheatre constructed by Bramante in the large court of the Vatican, whence the taste soon spread over all the nations of Europe.

2948. The pleasure which flowed from this renewal of an ancient art was at first confined to few, and those were either men of learning or select societies, who bore the expenses, and again raised in the country a renewal of a theatre much resembling those of the ancients as respected the form and disposition. To prove this, we need only cite the example of the celebrated theatre at Vicenza, built by Palladio in 1583, and designed in imitation of the ancient theatres. Its form is a semi-ellipsis, whose transverse axis is parallel with the scene, encompassed with fourteen ranges of steps for the spectators. The greater diameter of this ellipse is 97 feet, and the lesser, as far as the stage, about 574 feet. At the summit is a corridor of the Corinthian order, which, from the want of ground, could not be detached all round from the external wall. The nine central and the three external intercolumniations, therefore, where the columns touch the external wall, are filled with niches and statues. The stage is designed with two tiers of Corinthian columns surmounted with an appropriate attic. In the front of the stage are three openings through which three avenues of magnificent buildings appear, and at the end of each is a triumphal arch. All these are executed in alto relievo, but are foreshortened and diminished perspectively. A full account of this building, which is well worth the student's attention, is given in L'Origine dell' Academia Olympica, &c. Opera di Ottavio Bertotti Scamozzi. Vicenza, 1690. For dramatic representations this theatre is no longer used, and at present it is only recognised as a monument of the extraordinary skill of the architect, and a memorial of the dramatic buildings of its period. The theatre at Parma, built by Aleotti, is another building belonging to the same class, and preserved, like the last-mentioned, as a curiosity. 2949. When, however, the taste for scenic amusements began to spread, the sovereign princes, who alone could support the expense of such establishments, began to make them a necessary part of their palaces; and the theatre, no longer a public and essential building, became what it now is, not an edifice for the reception and accommodation of the whole population of a city at certain periods, but a place which served for the habitual amusement of those who could afford it. The drama again revived, and its history is an index to the edifices that rose for its representation. Becoming thus necessary for the amusement of the better classes of society, the establishment of theatres was undertaken by individuals in almost every city, and competition was the natural consequence. Then began the division of the theatre into different parts, the entry to which was marked by different prices, and the separation of the common people from those of rank and fortune.

2950. Italy does not contain so many theatres, nor of such consequence, as might be predicated from the taste of its inhabitants. Among the earliest of consequence was that built at Bologna in 1763 by Antonio Galli Bibiena, (not to mention that built at Verona under the direction of the celebrated Scipio Maffei by Francesco Galli Bibiena,) with a noble portico in front and salons in the angles, possessing moreover great merit in its interior distribution. In the Italian theatres there is almost invariably a certain feeling of grandeur and unity about the interior little to be expected from the exterior, which in no way leads the spectator to the suspicion of a fine Salle de Spectacle behind it.

2951. France has the credit of having erected the first modern theatre that can be denominated an example in this species of monumental architecture. That to which we allude is the theatre at Bordeaux, which is 325 feet in length, and half that measure in width. It is surrounded by arcades, whose piers are decorated with pilasters of the Corinthian order, running up the whole height through the ground and one-pair stories. Set back, an attic

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