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Ch. 2. for literary labour. In the old Castle of Wartburg, a great A. D. part of the Scriptures was translated into that beautiful and 1521. simple version, which is still the standard of the German language.

stadt.

While Luther was translating the Scriptures in his retreat, Wittemberg was the scene of new commotions, pregnant with great results. There were many of the more zealous conCarl- verts to the reformed doctrines, headed by Carlstadt, dean of the faculty of theology, who were not content with the progress which had been made, and who desired more sweeping and radical changes. Such a party ever exists in times of reform; for there are some persons who are always inclined to ultra and extravagant courses. Carlstadt was a type of He was learned, sincere, and amiable, but his

such men.

mind was not well balanced.

To him the Reformation was

only a half measure. He desired to abolish all priestly garments, all fasts and holidays, all pictures in the churches,

and all emblematical ceremonies of every kind. He insisted His ex- upon closing all places of public amusement; upon the abolitrava- tion of all religious communities; and upon the division of their possessions among the poor.

gances.

Luther's

return.

For such innovations the age was certainly not prepared, even had they been founded on reason; and the conservative mind of Luther was shocked at extravagances which served only to disgust the whole Christian world, and to jeopardize the cause in which he had embarked. So, against the entreaties of the Elector, and in spite of the ban of the empire, he returned to Wittemberg, where were now congregated the flower of the German youth. He resolved to oppose the movements of Carlstadt, even though opposition should destroy his influence. Especially did he declare against all violent measures to which the ultra reformers were inclined, knowing full well that if his cause were sullied with violence or fanaticism, all Christendom would unite to suppress it. His sermons are at this time (1522) pervaded with a profound and conservative spirit, and also a spirit of conciliation and

THOMAS MÜNZER.

29

love, calculated to calm passion, and carry conviction to Ch. 2. excited minds. His moderate counsels prevailed, the tumults A. D. were hushed, and order was restored. Carlstadt was silenced 1523. for a time; but his spirit was too active, and the age was too excited, for him to yield to Luther's authority on all points, especially on those to which he attached great importance. One of these was in reference to the presence of Christ's body in the Eucharist, which Carlstadt totally denied. He taught "that the Lord's supper was purely symbolic, and was simply a pledge to believers of their redemption." But Luther saw in every attempt to exhibit the mere symbolical import of the Supper only the danger of weakening the authority of Scripture; he therefore carried his views to the extreme of literal interpretation, and never could fully emancipate himself from the doctrines of Rome respecting the Eucharist. Carlstadt, Carlfinding himself persecuted at Wittemberg, left the city, and, stadt's as soon as he was released from the presence of Luther, began to revive his former zeal against images also, and was the promoter of great disturbances. He at last sought refuge in Strasburg, and sacrificed fame, and friends, and bread to his honest convictions.

pea

The views of Carlstadt, however, found advocates, and his extravagances were copied with still greater zeal. Many pretended to special divine illumination, and regarded the light thus obtained as superior to every other. Among these Münzer was Thomas Münzer, of Zwickau, mystical, ignorant, and and the conceited, but sincere and simple-hearted. "Luther," said sants' he, “has liberated men's consciences from the papal yoke, but he has not led them in spirit towards God." Considering himself as specially called upon to bring men into greater spiritual liberty, he went about inflaming the popular mind, frequently raising discontents, and sometimes even inciting to revolt.

Religion now became mingled with politics, and social and political evils were violently resisted under that garb. An insurrection at last arose in the districts of the Black Forest

war.

30

A. D.

ULRIC ZWINGLE.

Ch. 2. (1524), near the sources of the Danube, and spread from Suabia to the Rhine provinces, until it became exceedingly 1524. formidable. Then commenced what is called the "peasants' war," which was only ended by the slaughter of fifty thousand people. As the causes of this war, however, were chiefly political, the details belong to our chapter on political history. For this insurrection of the peasantry Luther always expressed great detestation, although he not unfrequently availed himself of it to lecture the princes of Germany on their duties as civil rulers.

Mar

Luther.

The peasant war was scarcely ended, when Luther married riage of Catharine Bora; and, as she was a nun and he was a monk, the marriage occasioned universal scandal. This union, which proved a happy one, was the signal of new reforms. Luther now emancipated himself from his monastic fetters, and lifted up his voice against the whole monastic system. Eight years had elapsed since he had preached against indulgences. During these eight years reform had been gradual; it had now advanced to the extreme limit it ever reached during the life of the reformer.

Ulric

Zwin

gle.

But in another quarter it sprang up with new force, and was carried to an extent not favoured in Germany. It was in Switzerland that the greatest approximation was made to the forms, if not to the spirit, of primitive Christianity.

The great hero of this Swiss movement was Ulric Zwingle, the most interesting of all the reformers. He was born in 1484, was educated amid the mountains of his picturesque country, and, like Erasmus, Reuchlin, Luther, and Melancthon, had no ⚫ claims to nobility beyond those of nature. But though poor, he was master of the scholastic philosophy, and of all the learning of his age. Like Luther, he was passionately fond of music, and played the lute, the harp, the violin, the flute, and the dulcimer. There was no more joyous spirit in all Switzerland than his. Every one loved his society, and honoured his attainments, and admired his genius. Like Luther and Erasmus, he was disgusted with scholasticism,

CONTROVERSY BETWEEN LUTHER AND ZWINGLE.

31

and regretted the time he had devoted to its study. He was Ch. 2. ordained in 1506 by the Bishop of Constance, and was settled in Zurich in 1518.

A. D. 1525.

ter of

Light broke upon the mind of Zwingle very gradually, and chiefly through the reading of the Scriptures. His experience was calm. He had no tempests to withstand, such as shook the soul of the Saxon monk. Nor was he so much interested on doctrinal points of faith. But he saw with equal clearness the corruptions of the church, and preached with equal zeal against indulgences and the usurpations of the Popes. The reformation of morals was the great aim of his life. His Charac preaching was practical and simple, and his doctrine was, that Zwin"religion consisted in trust in God, loving God, and innocence gle. of life." Moreover, he took a deep interest in the political relations of his country, and was an enthusiast in liberty as well as in religion. To him the town of Zurich was indebted for its emancipation from the episcopal government of Constance, and also for a reformation in all the externals of the church. He inspired the citizens with that positive spirit of Protestantism, which afterwards characterized Calvin and the Puritans. He was too radical a reformer to suit Luther, although he sympathized with most of his theological opinions.

ences

On one point, however, they differed; and this difference led Differto an acrimonious contest, disgraceful to Luther, and forming, with perhaps, the greatest blot on his character, inasmuch as it Luther. developed, to an extraordinary degree, both obstinacy and dogmatism, and showed that he could not bear contradiction or opposition. The quarrel arose from difference of views respecting the Lord's Supper, Luther maintaining the omnipresence of Christ's body in the sacred elements. He relinquished, indeed, the doctrine of the continually repeated miracle, but he substituted a universal miracle, wrought once for all. In the tenacity with which he clung to the opinions of the schoolmen on this point, we see his conservative spirit; he would not deny tradition, unless it was expressly contradicted by Scripture. He would probably have maintained

D

32

POLITICAL COMBINATIONS.

Ch. 2. the whole structure of the Latin church, had it not been disA. D. figured by modern additions; and so profoundly was he 1527. attached to its traditions, that he only emancipated himself

by violent inward storms. Zwingle, on the contrary, took Carlstadt's view of the Eucharist, that it was merely symbolic. Luther rejected all offers of conciliation, declared it essential to salvation to believe in the real presence of Christ in the sacrament, and refused to acknowledge Zwingle as a brother. Zwingle, nevertheless, continued his reforms, and sought to restore what he conceived to be the earliest forms in which reforms. Christianity had manifested itself. He desired to make all

Spirit of Zwingle's

cal com

binations.

on

worship purely spiritual. He rejected all rites and ceremonies not expressly enjoined in the Bible. Luther insisted retaining all that was not expressly forbidden. And this was the main point of distinction between them and their adherents.

Politi- But Zwingle contemplated political as well as religious changes, and as early as 1527, two years before his conference with Luther at Marburg, he had projected a league of all the reformers against the political authorities which opposed their progress. He combated the abuses of the State, as well as of the church. These designs at once created enemies, and secured enthusiastic friends. In all the cantons there was a strong democratic party opposed to the existing oligarchies, and in Berne, Basle, St. Gall, Zurich, Appenzell, Schaffhausen, and Glarus, this party obtained the ascendency. Tumults and violence followed, and finally civil war between the different cantons, those which adhered to the old faith being assisted by Austria. Lucerne, Uri, Schwytz, Zug, and Unterwalden took the lead against the reformed cantons, the foremost of which was Zurich, where Zwingle lived. Zurich was attacked. Zwingle, from impulses of patriotism and courage, issued forth from his house, and joined the standard of his countrymen, not as a chaplain, but as an armed warrior. This was his mistake. "They that take the sword shall

perish with the sword."

The intrepid and enlightened

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