Wieseler, in his recent work on the persecution of Christians by the Roman emperors until the third century. (Die Christenverfolgungen der Cæsaren, Gütersloh, 1878.) According to Wieseler, the Christians were distinctly distinguished by the Roman Government from the Jews as early as the time of Nero, they were not persecuted as a Jewish sect by Domitian, and their condition became more favorable, not unfavorable, by the rescript of Trajan.

Aretas, or Arethas, an archbishop of Cæsarea in Cappadocia, and author of a noted commentary on the Revelation, is supposed by some (see M'Clintock & Strong's Cyclopedia, art., Aretas) to have lived in the second half of the sixth century. Most of the recent German theologians (Lucke, De Wette, Bleek) place him toward the close of the fifth century; Papebroch, in the beginning of the eighth century. According to F. Görres (Zeitschrift fur wissenschaftliche Theologie, 1878, p. 260) the age of Arethas cannot be definitely determined, but he must at all events have lived later than Andrew, bishop of Cæsarea, who, he thinks, cannot have lived earlier than the close of the fourth century. Dr. Otto, professor of the faculty of Protestant Theology, at Vienna, regards the question of the age of Aretas as fully settled by two Greek codices, the one in Paris, the other in Moscow, both of which were written at the request of Aretas, the one in the year of the world 6,422, the other in 1640. This proves conclusively, according to Dr. Otto, that Aretas was archbishop of Cæsarca in the years A. D. 914 and 932. Dr. Otto promises to speak more fully of Aretas in the forthcoming third edition of Vol. III of his Corpus Apologetarum.

French Reviews.

REVUE CHRETIENNE, (Christian Review.) September, 1878.-1. G. MAYER, The Evangelization of Frauce. 2. J. CADÈNE, The Youth of E. Quinet, and the First Years of his Reputation. 3. P. DE WITT, On Charity in Paganism. 4. DE RICHEMOND, Jean Guiton.

October.-1. E. DE PRESSENSÉ, The Royalty of Man. 2. G. ROHR. Addresses made to Theological Students by Professor Ed. Reuss. 3. GODET, Theological and Philosophical Miscellanies by Astié. 4. F. DUMAS, A Trial for Heresy. November.-1. E. W., An English Essayist. 2. J. BIANQUIS, Victor Hugo's New Work, "Le Pape." 3. E. BAUMGARTNER, The Evangelization of the Workingmen. 4. G. MONOD, The Fine Arts at the Exposition Ouvrière, (1867–1878.) The Revue Chretienne, like all the prominent Protestant journals of France, continues to pay a special attention to the hopes

which begin to be entertained in wide circles in regard to a further progress of French Protestantism. G. Mayer, a frequent contributor to the Revue, discusses in the article above mentioned the question, what the Protestant Churches might do for this purpose, and what difficulties they will have to surmount. In his opinion it is absolutely indispensable for the work of evangelization to unite all the live forces of French Protestantism against the common adversaries. The Evangelical Alliance is in France a necessity. None of the Protestant denominations would, by itself alone, feel itself strong enough to undertake the work of evangelizing France, and will any of them be so narrow-minded as to refuse the concurrence of the Protestant Christians of other denominations? An alliance of evangelical denominations for the common work of evangelization would by no means involve on the part of any of the denominations an abandonment of its distinctive principles and ideas. It would be at the present time all the easier to bring about an alliance, as the denominations, themselves are casting off many points of divergence which have separated them in the past. In order to carry through the work of evangelization, the author of the article thinks that French Protestantism needs a powerful organization, which would unite all its strength, and give to it one concentrated direction. He proposes the creation of a central council of the Protestant Churches of France, or of a society of Protestant interests. It would be sufficient, he thinks, to come to an understanding with regard to the number of representatives which each Church should have in this new society. They would be designated by the proper authorities of the several Churches; they might associate with themselves lawyers and men of experience, and agents of the foreign religious societies might take part in the deliberations. This council might induce the Protestant Churches to act conjointly in many important questions, as with regard to French translations of the Bible; and it would be able more efficiently than any particular Protestant Church to defend, if necessary, the common interests of Protestantism against the State Government. He closes. his article by giving expression to the sanguine hope that the creation of such a council might inaugurate a new era for the Protestant Church.

In the monthly summary of the September number the Revue calls attention to the approach of a desperate conflict between State and Church concerning the management of the public school. In France the ultramontane party is outspoken in demanding that the State recognize the exclusive right of the Church of Rome to the education of the entire youth of the country. In opposition to the Church, the French university represents the principle of State education. Many cabinets during the last thirty years have tried to conclude compromises with the Church, and, more or less, conceded her demands. The recognized ascendency of the Republican party involves resistance to the influence of the Roman Church upon State education, and the restoration of the supreme influence of the university, as the representative of the State in the domain of education. The feeling between the two parties is extremely bitter. One of the members of the present Republican cabinet, M. de Marcère, expressed in a recent public address the fear that from the two organized school systems which now exist in France, the Catholic schools on the one hand and the national schools on the other, two hostile nations would proceed, which would mutually hate themselves without knowing each other, and by their desparate war might endanger the unity of the country. The present minister of public instruction, M. Bardoux, is a Protestant and a jealous partisan of the university. He has recently published a general statistical report on the secondary schools of France, both the State and the free institutions of this class, during the time from 1865 to 1876. This is the third report of the kind published in France, the first having been published in 1843 by M. Villemain, and the second in 1865 by M. Durny. It appears from the ministerial report that secondary instruction has made considerable progress during this time. The number of State lyceums has risen from seventy-seven in 1865 to eightysix, notwithstanding the loss of Alsace and Lorraine, and the number of pupils has increased by thirteen thousand. But the Church institutions have increased more rapidly than those of the State. While the increase of pupils in the Church schools is about equal to that of the State lyceums, (twelve thousand,) the increase in the number of Church institutions is thirty-one against nine in the number of the State schools. In proportion FOURTH SERIES, VOL. XXXI.-10

as university and Church schools increase, there is a steady decrease in the number of private schools. From 1854 to 1865 one hundred and sixty-eight institutions of this kind disappeared, from 1865 to 1876 one hundred and sixty-three, and at present no more than four hundred and ninety-four are left. If the increase of the Church and State institutions goes on as before, it may be expected that in twenty years hardly any private schools will remain in France, and that then the great battle between Catholic and university education will be fought. The Revue greatly regrets the disappearance of the private institutions, which, in its opinion, represent the principle of a direct and active concurrence of the family in education. It regrets this difference all the more because it cannot fully sympathize with either of the two extensive systems which remain, the Catholic education and the university education. The former represents a fanaticism with which no one but an ultramontane Catholic can be in sympathy; but the latter is too destitute of that religious and moral influence without which no education can be successful.

ART. IX.-FOREIGN RELIGIOUS INTELLIGENCE.

OLD CATHOLICS.

The Christian Catholic Church of Switzerland held its fourth annual synod at Aargau on May 25. The work of the synod was this year finished up within a few hours, in one day. The most important decision of the synod referred to the reception of the communion in both kinds. On this subject the French-speaking and German-speaking congregations have been for two years divided. The French have contended that a eucharist in one kind is, if not invalid, at least imperfect. The Germans, whose chosen speaker this year was Pfarrer Geschwind, stoutly contend for the validity of the administration in one kind, and fear that the reform would raise doubtful questionings with a population very much mixed among Protestants. The synod agreed upon a compromise worded as follows: 1. Communion in both kinds is likewise Catholic and permissible; 2. The right of introducing the same is reserved to the cantonal and district synods, and to the congregational boards of the Church, particularly in those cantons in which no superior authority exists. With regard to holy days, the synod determined that only Christ mas, New Year's, Ascension, and All Saints' days should be regarded as high festivals when they fall on week days, and that other holy days should be either discontinued or else transferred to the next Sunday;

but, on the other hand, that Good Friday should be "kept holy in a way corresponding to its high importance.' The delegates to the synod numbered one hundred and twenty. From the statistical report, submitted by Bishop Herzog, it appears that there were 61 organized parishes, in which 75 clergymen labored. A net gain of 5 priests had been made during the year, notwithstanding 11 secessions. Nine students of the theological faculty at Berne had been ordained, and 11 students were still preparing for the ministry. The total number of adherents in all Switzerland was computed by the bishop at 80,000 to 95,000. In comparison with the statistics of the preceding year there was an increase of 624 in the number of children under religious instruction, (3, 606,) of 133 in the number of young persons admitted to the holy communion, (1,018,) of 71 in the number of persons buried by the priests of the Church, (713;) there was, on the other hand, a decrease of 82 in the number of baptisms, (1,100,) and of 43 in the number of marriages, (233.) The number of parishes was not reported in 1877; in 1876 it was 55; so that from 1876 to 1878 the increase of organized parishes was 6. The majority of the congregations speak French; but the German congregations exhibit a larger aggregate membership and a more rapid progress. German Switzerland, as the bishop states, exceeds the 32 parishes of French Switzerland, from which reports were received, of 1,200 in the number of children under religious instruction, of 618 in the number of young persons admitted to holy communion, of 404 in the number of baptisms, of 166 in the number of marriages, and of 123 in the number of burials.

Shortly after the synod a parish was fully organized in St. Gall, the capital of the canton of the same name. Adding this new parish to those mentioned in Bishop Herzog's report, the Christian Catholic Church was, about the middle of 1878, fully constituted in eight of the twenty-two cantons of Switzerland. The following statistical table-which exhibits the total and the Roman Catholic population of these cantons, the number of Roman Catholic parishes in 1865, and of Christian Catholic parishes in 1878-will give a clear statistical view of the present condition of the Christian Catholic Church:

The Catholic population of these eight cantons constitutes more than two fifths of the entire Catholic population of Switzerland. The governments of all these cantons protect and favor the Christian Catholic Church. In all of them, especially in the German cantons of Aargau,