will go there naturally desire to remain as long | as possible, they drive back at full speed. But since the railway has been opened, a special train has been run to meet the exigencies of the case; the directors not being amenable to university discipline, and more anxious to secure their own profit, than to preserve the morals of the students. The youths who attend the university may be grouped into three classes. One of these is the "fast men," so called because they are hastening the ruin of their health and fortune, and hurrying out life by dissipation. They spend their time in day-sports and night-revelries, passing through the necessary forms of college-life, and perhaps managing to get crammed with enough of book-learning to take a degree of Bachelor of Arts, or at least of Laws. Various prudential arrangements have been made to curtail the reckless expenditure of such young men whilst attending the university, but when they will spend money and get into debt, they cannot be prevented. In vain the tradesmen are obliged to send in their bills to the tutors when they reach a certain amount, or at the end of each term, that the friends of the young men may be informed when they are "going ahead" in these matters; for they can run several bills for the same kind of goods; and if this be not enough, they can procure more from London. When the tradespeople are asked why they trust them, they sometimes answer, by inquiring why they keep their shops open. If parents trust these fast youths away from home, they must pay the cost: though, during their minority, they are legally responsible for only such an amount as is authorized by the tutors, which is very ample. For instance, we believe that £40 is deemed enough for a tailor's bill in one year with which opinion we certainly accord-but this is found quite inadequate to meet the extravagant wants of some young men. However, it is certain that new gowns and caps, especially the latter, often get exchanged for old ones; indeed, it is difficult to keep a new head piece, if worn on ordinary occasions. Another class of students, the major class in the university, desire to pass through the ordinary curriculum that they may reputably finish their education, or be thought qualified for entering into holy orders or the legal profession. They attend prayers, lecture, and dinner; read with a private tutor or coachy, who directs them to the chief subjects of examination; and spend some time, more or less, in private studies; for, as they aim at nothing more than a Bachelor's degree, the needful work can be done by a man of ordinary capa city with such an amount of application as will not be prejudicial to the welfare of the body or the enjoyment of life. The clever hard student is a man of a different grade. His anxious hopes are fixed upon coming out high in the class of honors. He probably looks forward to literary fame and promotion; and his prospects in life depend upon his present exertions. If, at the terminus of his probation, he succeed in being amongst the most proficient, he is sure of getting a fellowship and other scholastic emoluments. These men study with intense earnestness, and often injure their bodily constitution through unremitting application of the mind. Most of them are of limited pe cuniary means; but they can reduce their college expenses to a small figure by the present rewards of learning. Many exhi bitions or scholarships are awarded by the university or by particular colleges to those students who are most proficient. The whole number of such endowments is above seven hundred, some of them amounting in value to £50 a-year, and a few even to £100. Prizes are also given for Latin and English poems, dissertations on particular subjects, or other kinds of superiority in a particular college, sometimes amounting to £20 or £25 at a time. King's College is entirely supplied by the first scholars of Eton School, whose scholastic fortune is in a fair way of being made when they are elected to this privilege; since they receive their degree of Bachelor of Arts as a matter of course, and if they choose to remain at college are sure of soon becoming Fellows. Fellowships are said to form one of the matters of projected reform. The statutes of some colleges require the candidates for their fellowships to be natives of particular counties or districts, to come from particular schools, or to be graduates of this very college; so that they are limited to a portion of the Graduates, whilst other members of superior learning are not allowed to compete for these honors and emoluments. Yet the fellowships of some colleges are perfectly open to all competitors, and others are nearly so. There are upwards of four hundred in the university, some amounting in value to £300 per annum. Most of these fellowships are tenable for life, at least whilst the holders remain in "single blessedness," for they are all voided by marriage. But no duties are imposed upon the possessors of such benefits, and some spend many years in indolence, or uselessness to the public. These emoluments were originally intended to furnish pecuniary means for ardent students to pursue literary | didates who reach a certain standard marked and scientific researches, and thus raise the in the examiners' mind, are placed in the scholarship of the country. In some in- class of "Wranglers." The next class are stances this has been the case; still it is not the Senior Optimés, and the third are Junior necessarily so, but many afford a premium Optimés. A competitor for honors who falls for literary lounging. Out of these Fellows short of these is "gulfed;" he is declared are chosen the Tutors and Masters of colleg- unfit for honors, but is allowed to try for the es, also called "Heads of Houses." Junior common degree of B.A., along with the Poll, Fellows and young Graduates who are wait- a contraction of polloi, the Greek word for ing for this preferment often employ them- the many. Yet here the gulfed men often selves as private tutors, to direct the private fail, as the examination for honors only restudies, or "coach" the young gentlemen, spects mathematical proficiency, whereas the for which they are well paid. degree of B.A. requires a knowledge of classics and other subjects, with medium attainments in mathematics. In former times, almost any person could get a degree of B.A., but the standard of examination has been gradually raised, and a great number of idlers are every year plucked. It may happen that some are plucked through ignorance of one particular branch of necessary acquirement, in which case they may go and read hard with the aid of their coachy, and come up to a post mortem examination held a few weeks afterwards. Or, they can go home, and come up again to try their chance at a minor examination held after a few months. Some have been plucked several times. Other fast men, wisely sensible of their own defects, knowing that they did not come to Cambridge with a view to study, leave college under various pretexts before the proper curriculum is finished, and thus avoid both the examination and the disgrace of failure. The masters are allowed to be married men. Some wish to extend this privilege to the Fellows, which would be tantamount to providing for their families-an object altogether foreign to the design of the founders. Others, with better reason, wish the fellowships to be held for a limited number of years, and to be connected with some public duties rendered to the university. At present, they are mere sinecures, and are usually vacated by succeeding to some benefice or mastership. The ecclesiastical and other patronage of the university is considerable, consisting of more than three hundred and twenty pieces of church preferment, and fourteen public schools; besides the offices of vice-chancel lor, and other university functionaries, masters and tutors of colleges, professors, and lecturers. Excepting attendance at lecture, dinner, and prayers, the students spend their time according to their own will. Most of those who wish to succeed take the help of private tutors, who know the particular course of study to be pursued. The "little go," which is an easy affair to get through, is passed after half the course has been accomplished, and the whole finishes at the end of three years. Each man works for himself, without necessarily measuring himself with his neighbors; yet, in the competition for scholarships, and the college examinations for prizes, the men can form a pretty good estimate of their comparative merits, and guess who will stand high in the list of honors. All the best scholars aim at this distinction. The examination for honors lasts several days, when the candidates solve a variety of written problems and questions upon mathematical subjects. He who correctly answers most of these queries is called "Senior Wrangler," and is accounted the "first man of his year." This is not only a most distinguished honor, but virtually makes a man's fortune, as all academical places and emoluments are open to him without further trouble. Other can The conferring of the degrees makes a gala-day in Cambridge. The large hall of the university is crowded at an early hour with students and visitors; a certain space in front of the vice chancellor's chair being reserved for those concerned in the perform ance. This dignitary appears in his scarlet dress--very much like an old woman in a red gown and cap. Before the affair commences, the Under-graduates who throng the galleries begin to express their approval or disapproval of public men and measures by cheers or groans. One shouts out, "Three cheers for the queen!" which is lustily responded to. "Three cheers for the Senior Wrangler!" and perhaps, if he be a favorite, "Three cheers more!" The names of different masters and professors are called out, with one, two, or three cheers, or with groans or hisses, according to the popularity or disfavor in which they are generally held. Ministers of state, bishops, newspapers, public measures, undergo a similar ordeal. It is an animated and uproarious occasion. and Sometimes there is barking. The Proctors | been trying to draw the attention of students are always groaned. When the men of to other departments of knowledge, by esCatherine's Hall (abbreviated Cat's Hall) tablishing a tripos of honors for each of are presented, they are greeted with mewing them; but as this is altogether voluntary, like a cat. There is no decorous silence dur- | and the effort must be made after they have ing the ceremony; for these indications of life taken out their degree, the stimulus will only "up-stairs" are manifested through the whole succeed in a few cases. of it, without let or hindrance. It is a grave question, whether mathematThe Senior Wrangler is first presented to ics and classics in conjunction, without other the vice-chancellor, amidst shouts of ap- branches of study, ought to qualify for the plause. The test is then read over to him, degree of Bachelor, or Master of Arts. Howand he kneels down, and takes the oaths of ever much they may whet the mind in some his degree. Each master then presents the respects, and habituate it to close reasoning successful men of his own college, who next of a certain character, yet there are other come forward in batches, and take the oaths. kinds of learning requisite for a well-eduThis test is one of the matters to be reformed. cated gentleman. Civil history, logic, moral A dissenter from the Established Church philosophy, belles lettres, chemistry, and cannot conscientiously take it, and he is con- natural history, are frequently of greater sequently debarred from all university pre- practical importance than Newton's "Prinferment. It sometimes happens that men cipia," or the "Differential Calculus." Inwho have stood high in honors, have been deed, too close attention to a single branch unable to get a common degree because of of learning often prejudices the mind against this test. This occurred last year, before the that common knowledge which is needed in Oxford Reform Bill was brought into Parlia- the ordinary walks of life. For instance, the ment, and no doubt had some weight in al- "highest men" of Cambridge are sure, if they tering this part of the discipline of that uni- please, to obtain fellowships and subsequent versity. In Oxford, the test used to be ad- preferment in the church. But what facility ministered at the commencement of the course have they acquired by an intense study of of study, so that no Dissenter could properly mathematics, for instructing a peasant-conenter himself a student: but this is now abol- gregation in the principles and duties of reished; and a man may now become B. A. ligion and morality? Can their minds at all of Oxford without declaring himself a mem- fraternize with those of farmers and ploughber of the Established Church: but the test men? Or, suppose they wish to be authors is imposed before he becomes M.A., or takes or legislators, what has their education done any preferment which would give him a vote to aid them in such a capacity? The students or authority in the university. In Cambridge, of civil law would seem to have an advan there has been no test at matriculation but at tage in this respect; but the degree of B.C.L. the time of obtaining the first degree an is attainable with so small an amount of liteimpediment to be removed by a parliament-rary acquirements, that it is looked upon ary bill. There is, indeed, a strong reforming party amongst the rulers of Cambridge, who would gladly do all, and even more, than Parliament will require to be done; but they are impeded in their designs by the strength of the opposite party, who will not repair their house till it tumble about their ears. The education pursued at Cambridge has been chiefly confined to mathematics. Though mixed mathematics includes the principles of natural philosophy, yet this is generally thought to be too limited a range of study. A few men aspire after classical honors; but, in order to be examined for these, they must show themselves qualified to a certain extent in mathematics, by taking a good degree; whilst the mathematical men are not examined in any classics after the "little go;" and we have known some of these honorables who could not translate Virgil or Homer with any readiness. The authorities have lately with some contempt by the B.A. The College authorities have been asked to reform themselves-but what can they do? for self-reform is one of the hardest tasks imaginable. It is far more easy to see the mote in a brother's eye, than to pull out the beam from our own eye. One part of the desired reform almost anticipates the abandonment of the patronage which they possess, or the relinquishment of their own snug fellowships, after a few years' possession. Another part would interfere with the monopoly of ecclesiastical and scholastic preferments by the Episcopal Church. And to extend the range of college study, might require some of the tutors and examiners to go to school, and acquire new branches of learning. Reform will only come of necessity, or from violent fear lest legislation should lay a ruthless hand upon all their privileges, and throw open the benefits of their close corporation. From the Quarterly Review. ADULTERATIONS OF FOOD.* A STORY is told of an European who, wishing to convince a Brahmin of the folly of his faith, in interdicting, as an article of food. anything that once possessed life, showed him, by the aid of the microscope, that the very water which he drank was full of living things. The Indian, thus suddenly introduced to an unseen world, dashed the instrument to the ground, and reproached the teacher for having so wantonly destroyed the guiding principle of his life. We, too, have at home a Hindoo, in the shape of the believing British public, to whose eye Dr. Hassall nicely adjusts the focus of his microscope, and bids him behold what unseen villanies are daily perpetrated upon his purse and person. The world at large has almost forgotten Accum's celebrated work "Death in the Pot;" a new generation has indeed sprung up since it was written, and fraudulent tradesmen and manufacturers have gone on in silence, and, up to this time, in security, falsifying the food and picking the pockets of the people. Startling indeed as were the revelations in that remarkable book, yet it had little effect in reforming the abuses it exposed. General denunciations of grocers did not touch individuals of the craft, and they were consequently not driven to improve the quality of their wares. The "Lancet" Com mission went to work in a different manner. In Turkey, when of old they caught a baker giving false weight or adulterating the staff of life, they nailed his ear to the door post, "pour encourager les autres." Dr. Hassall, like a modern Äl Rachid, perambulated the * 1. Food and its Adulterations; composing the Reports of the Analytic Sanitary Commission of the "Lincet," in the years 1851 to 1854 inclusive. By Arthur Hill Haseall, M.D., Chief Analyst of the Commission. London, 1855. 2. "There's Death in the Pot." By Frederick Accum. London, 1820. town himself, or sent his trustworthy agents to purchase articles, upon all of which the inexorable microscope was set to work, and every fraudulent sample, after due notice given, subjected its vendor to be pinned forever to the terrible pages of the Commissioner's report. In this manner direct responsibility was obtained. If the falsification denounced was not the work of the retailer, he was glad enough to shift the blame upon the manufacturer, and thus the truth came out. A gun suddenly fired into a rookery could not cause a greater commotion than this publication of the names of dishonest tradesmen, nor does the daylight, when you lift a stone, startle ugly and loathsome things more quickly than the pencil of light, streaming through a quarter-inch lens, surprised in their naked ugliness the thousand and one illegal substances which enter more or less into every description of food that it will pay to adulterate. Nay, to such a pitch of refinement has the art of falsification of alimentary substances reached, that the very articles used to adulterate are adulterated; and while one tradesman is picking the pockets of his customers, a still more cunning rogue is, unknown to himself, deep in his own! The manner in which food is adulterated is not only one of degree, but of kind. The most simple of all sophistications, and that which is most harmless, is the mixture of inferior qualities of the same substance. Indeed, if the price charged were according to quality, it would be no fraud at all, but this adjustment rarely takes place. Secondly, the mixture of cheaper articles of another kind; Thirdly, the surreptitious introduction of materials which, taken in large quantities, are prejudicial to health; and Fourthly, the admixture of the most deadly poisons in order to improve the appearance of the article 3. Des Falsifications des Substances Alimentaries et "doctored." The microscope alone is capable of detecting at one operation the nature and extent of more harmless but general of these frauds. When once the investigator, by the aid of that instrument, has become familiar 4. Dictionnaire des Altérations et Falsifications the des Substances Alimentaires, Medicamenteuses et Commerciales, avec l'indication des moyens de les reconnaître. Par M. A. Chevallier. Paris. with the configurations of different kinds of the same chemically composed substances, he is armed with far greater detective power than chemical agents could provide him with. | It is beyond the limit of the test-tube to show the mind the various forms of animal and vegetable life which exist in impure water; delicate as are its powers it could not indicate the presence of the sugar insect, or distinguish with unerring nicety an admixture of the common Circuma arrowroot with the finer Maranta. Chemistry is quite capable of telling the component parts of any article; what are the definite forms and natures of the various ingredients which enter into a mixture it cannot so easily answer. This the microscope can at once effect, and in its present application consists Dr. Hassall's advantage over all previous investigators in the same field. The precision with which he is enabled to state the result of his labors leaves no appeal; he shows his reader the intimate structures of a coffee-grain and of oak or mahogany sawdust; and then a specimen of the two combined, sold under the title of genuine Mocha. Many manufacturers and retailers, who have been detected falsifying the food of the public, have threatened actions, but they all flinched from the test of this unerring instrument. The system of adulteration is so widespread and embraces so many of the items of the daily meal, that we scarcely know where to begin-what corner of the veil first to lift. Let us hold up the cruet-frame, for example, and analyze its contents. There is mustard, pepper (black and cayenne), vinegar, anchovy and Harvey sauce-so thinks the unsuspecting reader-let us show him what else beside. To begin with mustard. "Best Durham," or "Superfine Durham," no doubt it was purchased for, but we will summarily dismiss this substance by stating that it is impossible to procure it pure at all; out of forty-two samples bought by Dr. Hassall at the best as well as inferior shops, all were more or less adulterated with wheaten flour for bulk, and with turmeric for color. Vinegar also suffers a double adulteration; it is first watered, and then pungency is given to it by the addition of sulphuric acid. A small quantity of this acid is allowed by law; and this is frequently trebled by the victuallers. The pepper-caster is another stronghold of fraud-fraud so long and openly practiced, that we question if the great mass of the perpetrators even think they are doing wrong. Among the milder forms of sophistication to which this article is subjected are to be found such ingredients as wheaten flour, ground rice, ground mustard seeds, and linseed-meal. The grocer maintains a certain reserve as to the generality of the articles he employs in vitiating his wares, but pepper he seems to think is given up to him by the public to "cook" in any manner he thinks fit. This he almost invariably does by the addition of what is known in the trade as P. D., or pepper-dust, alias the sweepings from the pepper warehouses. But there is a lower depth still; P. D. is too genuine a commodity for some markets, and it is accordingly mixed with D. P. D., or dirt of pepper-dust. A little book, published not long since, entitled "The Successful Merchant," gives the minute trade history of a gentleman very much respected in Bristol, Samuel Budgett, Esq., affords us a passage bearing upon this P. D. which is worthy of notice : "In Mr. Budgett's early days," says his biog rapher, " pepper was under a heavy tax, and in the trade universal tradition said that out of the trade everybody expected pepper to be mixed. In the shop stood a cask, labelled P. D, containing something very like pepper-dust, wherewith it was usual to mix the pepper before sending it forth to serve the public. The trade tradition had obtained for the apocryphal P. D. a place amongst the standard articles of the shop, and on the strength who thought they were honest. But as Samuel of that tradition it was vended for pepper by men went on in life his ideas on trade morality grew clearer; this P. D. began to give him much discomfort. He thought upon it till he was satisfied that, after all that could be said, the thing was wrong; arrived at this conclusion, he felt that no blessing could light upon the place while should perish. It was night, but back he went to it was there. He instantly decreed that P. D. the shop, took the hypocritical cask, carried it out to the quarry, then staved it, and scattered P. D. among the clods, and slag, and stones." Would we could say that the reduction of the tax upon pepper had stimulated the honesty of other grocers to act a similar part to that of Mr. Budgett, but P. D. flourishes as flagrantly as ever; and if every possessor of the article in London were to stave bis casks in the roadway, as conscientiously as did the "Successful Merchant," there would be hard work for the scavengers. In the days of Accum it was usual to manufacture peppercorns out of oiled linseed-cake, clay, and cayenne pepper, formed into a mass, and then granulated these fraudulent corns mixed with the real, to the extent of 17 per cent. This form of imposition, like that of wooden nutmegs among our American friends, were |