weighing 40, 60, and 90 catties; whilst a Russian account makes mention of 2 poods, or 90 pounds English. The probability is, that the size of the packages varies according to the quality of their contents.

For green teas there appears to be but a limited demand; and it is said that a considerable portion of 36,000 packages, which were forwarded last year (1851) to Kiakhta, but arrived too late for the trade of the season, remained unsold, and reduced the supply for 1852 to 19,000 packages, 17,000 of which consisted of young hyson of superior quality. Another account says that the annual supply of this description of tea fluctuates between 25,000 and 40,000 packages, chiefly young hyson with imperial and gunpowder.

At

Brick tea is another very important item of the trade, and must be exported to a large amount, as it is as great a necessary of life to the Russian peasants, and to the Kalmucks of Astrachan, as it is to the nomades of Mongolia. Kiakhta, where no coin is allowed to circulate between the Russians and the Chinese, it serves as the money unit, or standard of value, in which every other kind of exchangeable property is expressed. The practice of making tea into bricks, cakes, or tiles, as they are variously called, is common in all the provinces where tea is produced; and the quality of the tea when thus manufactured varies as greatly as the size or shape of the bricks. Those sent to Russia appear to average an oka (2 lbs.) in weight, but we also hear of variations in size, from 3 to 4 lbs., and in cost from 16 to 22 pence each. The only estimate rendered me of the sale of this article gives about 3,000,000 lbs. as the quantity received by the Russians at Kiakhta; but this calculation in all probability is greatly underrated, unless large supplies are forwarded across the western frontier of the Chinese dominions.

Taking 250,000 packages as a medium estimate of the supply of tea (inclusive of green) for 1852, and calculating these at an average weight of 60 lbs., and at a moderate value of 20 dollars each, and including also the abovementioned quantity of brick tea, we shall have 18,000,000 lbs, as the total quantity of the Kiakhta sales, representing a value (in China) of 5,300,000 dollars.

An estimate so loosely formed as the above is, of course, not deserving of great reliance. But when we consider—after allowing for contraband importations via Hamburg-that the re-exports of tea from England to Russia do not probably amount to more than 2,000,000 lbs.,-that the taste for tea in that country, from the noble to the serf, has now become universal-and that its population is double that of England, which consumes annually more than 50,000,000 lbs., there are grounds for concluding that exaggeration forms no feature of the above calculation, and that its error lies rather in underrating than in over-estimating the extent and value of this unknown trade.

Chinese Manufactures.-Both silk, and cotton piece-goods are exported by the Russians, but to a limited extent; and it would appear that late improvements in their own manufactures have had the effect of lessening the demand for Chinese silks and nankeens. Siberia, however, continues to purchase considerable quantities of these goods, especially the cotton fabrics, which on account of their great durability are suited to the wants of an unrefined population. The women of the better classes use two kinds of silken stuffs, which they call "kanfa" and "fan-sa." The former is the Twantsze or broad Nanking satin, and the latter the Fangsze, or closely-wove Hangchow silk. Of cotton cloths two sorts are supplied; they are called "Poo" and "Tsoopoo" by the Chinese, and are known in Siberia as "Kitaika" and "Daba." They differ from each other in respect to quality only, both being calico of a strong description, and generally dyed blue, red, or some bright colour. The quantity entering into consumption it is impossible to estimate: one calculation gives 80,000 pieces only; whilst travellers speak of both silken and cotton goods being in general use through Siberia.

Rhubarb is mentioned as being largely exported, but the trade in it is said

to be a monopoly which rests in the hands of Bucharian merchants. The annual supply is said to be between 300,000 and 400,000 lbs. weight.

Sugar-candy is purchased by the Russians in limited quantities, and used by them as a sweetmeat. It is the produce of the cane of Fuhkeen, sent from thence by sea to Teentsin, and so on to Peking.

No other staples remain to be enumerated, but mention may be made of the following sundries:-Wooden brown lacquer tea-cups of large size, intended for the use of brick teas-they wear well, and are quite capable of resisting the action of boiling water; crackers or fireworks of the same construction as those sold at Canton; Chinese ink, stationery, pictures, &c., the gaudy colours of which possess attractions in the cabins of Siberia; toys of all descriptions, blinds of split bamboo, vases, cups, &c., of nephrite, agate, chalcedony, and cornelian, figures of wood and bronze, porcelain, furniture, artificial flowers, colouring-matters, tobacco, dried fruits, sweetmeats, &c.

A few remarks on the carriage of the goods along the surprising route which is traversed by this trade may be deemed pertinent to the subject.

Teas, silks, and all other Chinese merchandise for the wholesale or direct Russian trade are first collected at Chang-kea-kow, or Kalgan, a large frontier city just within the great wall, where they often change hands before the final arrangements are made for carrying them across the desert to Kiakhta. The goods are transported either on the backs of camels or in small carts drawn by a single ox or bullock. The former animals, when laden with burdens not exceeding 300 catties (400 lbs.) in weight, require from 40 to 50 days to perform the journey between Kalgan and Kiakhta, estimated at 804 miles. Oxen take a longer time on the route, but probably convey the goods in a safer condition, as they seem generally to receive higher rates of remuneration. These rates, which vary considerably according to the scarcity of beasts or quantity of merchandise, range between 1 and 3 taels for 100 catties, say from 2 to 5 dollars for the whole distance between the above-mentioned places; but the average or most usual rate appears to be 23 taels, or about 3 dollars per 100 catties. The oxen are owned chiefly by Isakhar, and the camels by Mongol tribes; and the peaceful and profitable employment which is thus afforded to thousands of these nomades is not the least benefit that results from the trade. The Russians transport nearly all the returns of the wholesale trade to Nijnei-Novgorod and Moscow, making use of both land and water communication. In the former case, sledges form the means of conveyance, and the best part of a year is commonly occupied in the journey, although choice teas and silks can be pushed on at an increased speed. By the latter route the waters of the Angari, Yennessei, Obi, and Irtish, serve alternately as far as Tiumen ; but owing to the shortness of the summers, delays are necessarily great, and goods thus forwarded are said to be sometimes 3 years on their way to the heart of European Russia.

The cost of conveyance westward is greatly increased by the chests of tea being packed in raw hides, to secure them against the damage they would otherwise sustain from constant exposure to concussion, and at times to moisture. It is only through countries circumstanced similarly to Russia, where the rates of remuneration are remarkably low both for man and beast, that bulky commodities, however valuable, could bear or repay so long and tedious a transit. The cost of transport from Kiakhta to Moscow is computed at 407. sterling per ton weight, or 41d. per lb. ; and if the means of making an accurate calculation were obtainable, it would probably be found that nearly the same expense is incurred in conveying the teas from the place of production in China to Mae-mae-chin. We have already seen that the transit across the desert between Kalgan and Kiakhta, a journey of 800 miles, costs, at a moderate calculation, 34 dollars per pecul (100 catties), or say 14d. per lb.

Now the distance from Kalgan to the N. of Fuhkeen, the province from which the Russians derive the largest portion of their teas, is about 1200 miles, or half as long again as the desert journey; and as the greater part of the transit through the provinces is also a land one, it may be concluded that the expenses amount to at least as much as those that are incurred between Kalgan and Kiakhta. Thus the expense of transport on the Chinese side may fairly be computed at 34d. per lb., which, added to that of the Russian transit, gives a total of 74d. as the cost of the carriage of each lb. of tea, from the place of its production to the central market of Russia. This amount, which forms, it will be seen, an inconsiderable addition to the value of fine teas, is of course exclusive of all dues or other charges, and is therefore only to be compared with the freight paid for shipping, which on tea to England varies from d. to 1d., according as the rates range from 27. to 67. per measurement ton. The protective duty of 70 per cent. ad valorem, imposed in Russia on all teas imported from foreign countries, serves in some measure as an index to the costs which attach to the Kiakhta trade.

Little is to be observed on the other points of trade. Second to Kiakhta is that of Kokand and Bokhara. Russian caravans reach the former place both from Orenburg and Semipalatinsk, and are met there by Chinese merchants from Kashgar and Yarkand, in Chinese Turkestan, on which Kokand borders. Considerable quantities of skins cross the frontier from Bokhara, and are principally paid for in brick tea. There is also Tsuruchaiton on the Argun (to the E. of Kiakhta); but this place is not much frequented, and its trade consists of the usual interchange of brick tea, coarse blue and white Chinese cloths, and tobacco, for sheepskins, Russia leather, &c.

This imperfect glance at the Kiakhta trade suggests the conclusion that its importance to Russia is very considerable; not more, perhaps, in respect to the consumption of home manufactures, than in furnishing extensive sources of profit and employment to the Siberian settlements. The Russians, however, during the last two or three years have manifested a desire to open a trade on the seaboard of China, the advantage of which to European Russia would appear at first sight to be only procurable at the expense of the traffic now carried on at Kiakhta. But if, as there is reason to believe is the case, the mutual demand for tea and for Russian goods is steadily increasing, an extensive commerce, both inland and maritime, would not be incompatible; for, admitting that Western Russia might be supplied with tea more conveniently by sea, it is equally certain that the land route would continue to be the most serviceable one for its eastern dominions, and the one by which the furs, skins, and leather of the latter could more readily be forwarded to Mongolia and the North of China, where they are chiefly consumed.

The goods which the Russians import are well suited to the Chinese market; and owing to the peculiar system which regulates the Kiakhta trade, they can afford to dispose of them at very low rates; therefore these circumstances are alone sufficient to secure these imports the extensive circulation they command. But in the event of their being introduced into China by a maritime route, they would naturally have to enter under a wholly different system; the same, in short, as that under which the trade of other foreign nations should happen to be conducted, and would thus be brought into a fair and equal competition with the manufactures of England and other countries.

XXI.-Summary of the last Census of Switzerland. By Prof.
PAUL CHAIX, of Geneva, Corresp. F.R.G.S.

Addressed to and communicated by the SECRETARY.

A CENSUS has been taken of the population of Switzerland, the result of which gives 888,860 Catholics, 1,300,338 Protestants, about 2900 Jews-in all 2,190,258 inhabitants; of these 55,000 were foreigners, or of the whole population. Several of the cantons have since published new accounts of their population; but a general census was never made until the month of March, 1850.

Extent, 1748 square leagues (the Swiss league is 4800 mètres long), or 730 German square miles of 15 to a degree, or 2030 French square leagues of 25 to a degree, or 11,695 geographical square miles of 60 to a degree.

The largest cantons are Grisons, 301 square leagues (Swiss); Bern, 294 square leagues; Valais, 192; Vaud, 145; Ticino, 128; and St. Gall, 87. The smallest are, Zug, 10; Geneva, 12; Schaffhausen, 13; and Appenzell, 18 square leagues (Swiss).

Proportion of Sexes.-It is a fact known by all statists that, on account of the greater mortality of males, the total number of females in a census is greater than that of the males. In England the proportion was 106 females to 100 males in the census taken in 1841. There does not exist in Switzerland so great a surplus of females, the proportion being 102 to 100 males; they would even be brought to equal numbers if an exact table of the absentees were procured, and added to the actual number of inhabitants. It is only in the cantons of Vaud, Bâle-Campagne, Valais, and Bern, that the number of women is inferior to that of the men; an unexpected result, as a numerous military emigration takes place to Naples and other Italian states. In the other three cantons the result is caused by the absence of many girls who enter domestic service in the larger cities of Basel (Bâle), Geneva, and Neuchâtel : from which it is obvious that for the same reasons the census in the latter cantons

shows a proportion of 110 women to 100 men. That proportion is even 111 to 100 in the aggregate cantons of Grisons and Ticino, on account of the number of absentees, 16,801 men against 5250 women. In the cities the numbers are most unequal, Geneva having 15,664 women to 13,441 men; Zurich, 8855 women to 8185 men; Friburg, 4804 women to 4261 men; and Soleure, 2997 women to 2373 men.

27

100

Family Condition.-While the number of married people is to the whole population as 31 to 100, the two largest cities, Basel and Geneva (both Protestant), show very different proportions, there being in Geneva, while there are only in Basel. The most hilly cantons (all Catholics) have a much smaller proportion of married inhabitants: Lucerne, Zug 25, Friburg. This may be taken as the result of Catholicism and not of poverty, as the proportion is in Glaris, a canton placed under the same circumstances, but a Protestant one.

33

Political Condition.-Vagrant paupers or vagabonds have no claim to citizenship, are a great burden, and are often ejected from one territory to another.

The cantons had been directed to give an account of the number of political refugees living in their territory, but very few answered the call—some because they were not afflicted with that plague; others from reasons better known to their political leaders; while some of the accounts forwarded may be considered as flagrant forgeries (Geneva, for example, only 79).

Increase of Population. The cantons where the rate of increase is the slowest are Glaris and Ticino, where it is checked by large emigrations.

Those in which the increase is most rapid are the following, which I give, together with the probable number of years in which the population may be doubled :- Basel, the city, 44 years; Neuchâtel, 47; Bâle-Campagne, 58; Appenzell, Inner Rhoden, 62; Zug, 67; Bern, 70; for the whole Confederation, 97 years; while in England the period would be 78; and in France, 118.

The laws affecting population, such as births and deaths, have been but partially studied, many cantons having long been under monkish rule, and very averse to anything like statistics. They have been the subject of a very clever paper, published a few years ago, on the population of Geneva, by Judge E. Mallet. It showed that in the city of Geneva the mean probable duration of

life was 40 years at the age of 15; 37.5 years at the age of 20; 31.7 years

at the age of 30; 28-8 years at the age of 40; 18 3 at the age of 50; 12.6 years at the age of 60; 8.3 years at 70; 5 2 years at 80; 3.7 years at 90; and 21 years at the age of 95: a pretty good proof of longevity, and superior (from the age of 30 upwards) to that in the more healthy canton of Vaud.

In the absence of more extensive materials, Mr. Franscini has made a total of 312,545 births, and 247,622 deaths, collected, I regret to say, from very limited periods, in the état-civil of 7 cantons (Thurgovia, St. Gall, Zurich, Soleure, Bern, Neuchâtel, and Geneva), and exclusive of 8676 still-born; which gives 127 births to 100 deaths. He has also, from a sum of 392,015 deaths collected in various cantons, made a table of mortality calculated on the number of 10,000 births.

Emigration.This is not exactly known for the whole Confederation. The Protestant emigration is chiefly directed to the States of Illinois, Ohio, and Missouri, while the Catholics have formed settlements in Brazil and Algiers. From official accounts 919 persons, or part of the population, left the canton of Glaris in the 2 years 1845 and 1846. The mean annual emigration from the Grisons is of the population; in St. Gall; 3 in Bern; in Argovia. The number is not exactly known for Bern; 9345, which I have inscribed for the absentees from that canton, being the result of returns of but the half of the parish, the other having made no returns. Some people think it might have reached double that number.

Foreigners.-The number of foreigners was, in 1837, 55,000, or of the population; from the last census it is 68,941 according to Mr. Franscini, and 70,804 according to my own observation, which is an increase from to of the population. It may be thought curious that there should be a difference of 1863 between us on such a matter-of-fact subject. My account is the sum of all the returns made by several cantons; they do not agree in one single case with those given by Mr. Franscini, chief of the Home department of the Confederation. How it happens that these numbers have all been reduced by going through the offices of our federal administration, is still more difficult to understand, than their silence respecting the number of political refugees in our country.

Religion.-The difference between the two religions is exactly the same