CONCLUSION.

The

ALL parts of the universe hold a mutual relation to each other; and in the whole empire of finite nature nothing exists for itself alone. universe stands in such a relation to its first cause, that it could not subsist a moment by itself. It belongs to us to study the mutual relation of beings, which are not our work, but the productions of Nature; and the result of this study constitutes our law. The knowledge of this informs us how we may be able to turn everything which exists to our advantage. In nothing, indeed, is man more distinguished from the brutes than in the faculty of acquiring this knowledge; he possesses no other claim to the dominion of the world, but by his superior intellect alone he holds it in subjection. Moreover, as man alone is endowed with the power of elevating himself in communion with the Author of all things, he stands, with respect to all subordinate beings, in

the situation of those (if we may venture to use the expression) who in monarchical governments have the exclusive privilege of entering into the presence of the sovereign.

The law of nature is the result of our relations to the visible world, and especially to all beings endowed with feeling. The generality of men have comprehended indeed, under this term, (fancying that they are under no obligations of duty, except towards their equals,) only that which, after abstracting all personal and local connections, every man owes to his fellow-creatures; but this part of the natural law does not embrace its whole extent, although it is obviously the most interesting to us.183

Since all men do not possess the faculties and industry needful for sifting to the bottom these first principles, and since it cannot be expected, from the violence of human passions, that among the various points of view in which each affair may be contemplated, men will always adopt the most generally beneficial result, as the rule of their conduct; positive regulations were required, in order to support the natural law with a sufficient power, and from time to time with effective measures, against the encroachment of ignorance

and self-interest. An endless variety of circumstances soon diversified these regulations, and greatly multiplied them, by giving rise to an infinite diversity of relations. Moreover, violent changes took place, which quickly gave to human society a new form, different from its primitive and simple state, and from the spirit and design of its first institutions: this was a source of more complex relations, which required new precepts.

The increasing number of these obtained, according to the objects with which they were conversant, the designation of civil, political, public, and ecclesiastical law. The minutest affairs were regulated by positive laws, since human passions extends to all, and requires, in every conjuncture, a prescribed and distinct limitation. Yet the innumerable multitude of ordinances are capable of being reduced to a few general principles; it is only necessary to point out the particular applications, in order to confute the sophistry of those who will not embrace the universal scheme.

In some instances the laws have either been proposed, or at least ratified, in popular assemblies; in others, the nation has submitted silently to the commands which one or more individuals

(who by virtue or power have raised themselves to be rulers or lords) have issued, under the character of representatives, or protectors of the people. One man, or a body of men, have also administered the executive power. The variations thus produced constitute great diversities in the forms of government. Monarchy is that government in which a single person rules, but is subject to limitation by the laws, over which a middle power presides, and watches for their conservation. The authority of the latter may flow from the splendour of a long succession of dignified ancestors, or from their destination to the defence of their country, or from their qualifications as possessors of land; they are termed, accordingly the noble, the patrician order, or the parliament. In other instances, superior knowledge in divine and human affairs imparts the privilege, as among the ancient Gauls to the Druids, and for a long period to the tribe of Levi among the Hebrews. Despotism, which knows no law, but the arbitrary will of one man, is a corruption or disorganization of monarchy.

Aristocracy is the government of ancient families, and of those who are chosen by them into the senate. This assembly either consists, as was at Venice, of the whole body to whom their birth

right gives a share in the government, or it is a select number chosen out of them, as in several Swiss cantons. One branch of this form of administration is Timocracy, or that constitution, in which the laws define a certain property, the possessors of which, alone, are capable of holding offices. This system, and aristocracy in general, degenerate into Oligarchy, that is, into a form of government in which the chief power, by the laws, or by descent, or accident, is confined to a very small number of men.

Democracy denotes, according to the old signification of the word, that system of government in which all the citizens assembled partake in the supreme power. When all the landholders, though not citizens, join with the latter in the exercise of their high privileges, Ochlocracy prevails. This name is also given to that condition of the democratic form, in which, in consequence of bad laws or the violent commotions, the power, which properly belonged to the people, has been transferred to the populace.

The best form of government is that which, avoiding the above-mentioned excesses, combines the decisive vigour of monarchy with the mature wisdom of a senate, and with the animating im