(24) All the Egyptians digged round about the river.-Wells may be sunk in any part of the alluvium, and will always yield water, which is, however, brackish and unpalatable. This water is, no doubt, derived by percolation from the river; but the percolation is a slow process, and blood would scarcely percolate far. The water obtained was probably in the ground before the miracle took place, and was not made subject to it.

(25) And seven days were fulfilled.-These words seem to mark the duration of the first plague, which was the longer because Pharaoh made no submission at all in consequence of it. Obtaining sufficient water for his own purposes (see the comment on verse 23), he thought little of its continuance.

VIII.

THE SECOND Plague.

(1-4) It is generally allowed that the second plague was one of frogs. All the ancient versions agree in the interpretation; and the only rival rendering "crocodiles "-is too absurd to be argued against. We may take it, therefore, as certain that the second infliction upon Egypt was an innumerable multitude of frogs, which came up out of the river, and infested the cities, the houses, the sleeping apartments, the beds, the ovens, and the kneading-troughs. There was no escaping them. They entered the royal palace no less than the peasant's cottage; they penetrated to the inner chambers; they leaped upon the couches and beds; they polluted the baking utensils, and defiled the water and the food. Here, again, the infliction was double. (1) Frogs were sacred animals to the Egyptians, who regarded them as symbols of procreative power, and associated them especially with the goddess Heka (a wife of Kneph, or Num), whom they represented as frog-headed. Sacred animals might not be intentionally killed; and even their involuntary slaughter was not unfrequently punished with death. To be plagued with a multitude of reptiles which might not be put to death, yet on which it was scarcely possible not to tread, and which, whenever a door was opened were crushed, was a severe trial to the religious feelings of the people, and tended to bring the religion itself into contempt. (2) The visitation was horrible to the senses -nauseous, disgusting. The frogs were hideous to the

The Plague of Frogs.

up and come into thine house, and into thy bedchamber, and upon thy bed, and into the house of thy servants, and upon thy people, and into thine ovens, and into thy 1kneadingtroughs: (4) and the frogs shall come up both on thee, and upon thy people, and upon all thy servants.

(5) And the LORD spake unto Moses, Say unto Aaron, Stretch forth thine hand with thy rod over the streams, over the rivers, and over the ponds, and cause frogs to come up upon the land of Egypt. And Aaron stretched out his hand over the waters of Egypt; and the frogs came up, and covered the land of Egypt.

eye, grating to the ear, repulsive to the touch. Their constant presence everywhere rendered them a continual torment. If other later plagues were more injurious, the plague of frogs was perhaps of all the most loathsome. We read without surprise in Eustathius (Comment. in Hom. I., p. 35) that the people of Pæonia and Dardania on one occasion, were so plagued by a multitude of frogs, which filled the houses and the streets, infected the water, invaded the cooking utensils, and made all the food uneatable, that after a time, being unable to bear the pest any longer, they "fled from that region altogether."

(1) Let my people go.-The usual demand, which it was determined to reiterate until Pharaoh yielded. (See chaps. v. 1, vii. 16, viii. 20, ix. 1—13, x. 3.)

(2) With frogs.-The particular species intended is thought to be the modern dofka (Rana Mosaica), which is a large kind, resembling our toad, which crawls more than it leaps, and croaks perpetually.

(3) The river shall bring forth frogs.-The frogs do not now come up directly out of the river, but rather out of the ponds and marshes which are left by the inundation. (See verse 5.) These, however, may be viewed as detached portions of the river. Frogs in Egypt are, even at the present day, an occasional annoyance and inconvenience.

Thy bedchamber thy bed.-No nation of antiquity set such a value on cleanliness as the Egyptians. Priests were required to dress entirely in linen, and to wash their entire bodies in cold water twice every day and twice every night (Herod. ii. 37). With other classes ablutions were frequent, and the utmost care was taken to avoid contact with whatever was uncleanly. It is difficult to conceive a greater annoyance to an Egyptian than frogs in the bedchamber and on the bed.

Ovens. Or, baking-pans-earthenware vessels commonly heated by having a fire lighted inside them, and the dough attached by pressure after the fire had been withdrawn.

Kneading troughs.-Comp. below, chap. xii. 34, which fixes the sense; and for representations of both kneading-troughs and ovens, see Rosellini, Monumenti Civili, pls. 84, 85.

(6) The frogs came up.-Hebrew, the frog. The term designates the species.

may become lice throughout all the land of Egypt. (17) And they did so; for

Aaron stretched out his hand with his rod, and smote the dust of the earth, and it became lice in man, and in beast; all the dust of the land became lice throughout all the land of Egypt. (18) And the magicians did so with their enchantments to bring forth lice, but they could not: so there were lice upon man, and upon beast. (19) Then the magicians said unto Pharaoh, This is the finger of God: and Pharaoh's heart was hardened, and he hearkened not unto them; as the LORD had said.

(20) And the LORD said unto Moses,

is Threatened.

&c.

and fury, and sometimes even torturing them to death."

It is to be noticed that the third plague, whatever it was, came without warning. It was God's judgment on Pharaoh for hardening his heart and breaking his promise (verse 15); and he was not given the option of avoiding it by submission to God's will.

(16) Smite the dust of the land.-Dust prevails in Egypt to an extent that is highly inconvenient. "We travelled to Ashmim," says one writer, "through clouds of dust, raised by a high wind, which intercepted our view as much as if we had been travelling in a fog.' There is one great source of discomfort," says another, "arising from the dryness of the atmosphere, namely, an excessive quantity of dust." When" all the dust of the land became mosquitoes" (verse 17), the plague must indeed have been great.

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(18) The magicians did so-i.e., tried to do sotook moist earth, and dried it, and pulverised it, and tried the effect of their magic charms upon it, but failed to produce mosquitoes, as Aaron had done. Mosquitoes were things too delicate to be caught, and manipulated, and produced at a given moment by sleight-ofhand. The magicians tried to produce a counterfeit of the miracle, but could not. Then they excused themselves to their master with the words, "This is the finger of a god."

(19) The finger of God.-Rather, of a god. The magicians meant to say, "This is beyond the power of man: it is supernatural; some god must be helping Moses and Aaron." They did not mean to profess a belief in One God.

Pharaoh's heart was hardened.-The mosquitoes did not impress Pharaoh as the frogs had done (verses 8-15). His heart remained hard. He had no need to harden it by an act of his will. Probably the visitation affected him but little, since he would possess mosquito curtains, and could inhabit the loftier parts of his palace, which would be above the height whereto the mosquito ascends (Herod. ii. 95).

THE FOURTH PLAGUE.

(20, 21) There is, again, a doubt as to the nature of the fourth plague. In the original it is called the plague of "the 'arob," which is used throughout in the singular number. The LXX. translate ha-'arob by "the dogfly” (ʼn kvvóμvia). The Jewish commentators connect the word with the root 'ereb or 'arab, and suppose it to designate either a mixed multitude of all kinds of wild

beasts (Josephus and Jonathan), or a mixture of all sorts of insects (Aquila, &c.). Moderns generally agree with the LXX. that a definite species of animalprobably an insect-is meant, but doubt about the particular creature. The dog-fly, it is said (Musca canina), is not a pest in houses, as the 'arôb was (verses 21, 24), nor does it do any damage to the land (verse 24). It is therefore suggested that the plague was really one of the kakerlaque, a kind of beetle, which is injurious both to the persons of men, to the furniture and fittings of houses, and to the crops in the fields. It is in favour of the kakerlaque that, like all beetles, it was sacred, and might not be destroyed, being emblematic of the sun-god, Ra, especially in his form of Khepra, or "the creator." Egyptians were obliged to submit to such a plague without attempting to diminish it, and would naturally view the infliction as a sign that the sun-god was angry with them. They would also suffer grievously in person, for the kakerlaque "inflicts very painful bites with its jaws" (Kalisch); and they would begin for the first time to suffer in their property, which neither the frogs nor the mosquitoes had damaged. The plague was thus-if one of the kakerlaque-an advance on previous plagues, and if less disgusting than some others, was far more injurious.

(20) Early in the morning.-Comp. chap. vii. 15; and on the early habits of an Egyptian king, see Herod. ii. 172.

He cometh forth to the water.-It is conjectured that this was on the occasion of the great autumn festival, when, after the retirement of the Nile within its banks, and the scattering of the grain upon the fresh deposit of mud, the first blades of corn began to appear. It is not improbable that Khepra, "the creator," was then especially worshipped.

(21) Swarms of flies.-Heb., the 'arôb. Comp. "the frog" (verse 13), and "the mosquito" (ha-kinnim) in verse 17. On the species intended, see the comment on verses 20, 21.

and its Removal.

and sacrifice to the LORD our God, as 'he shall command us. (28) And Pharaoh said, I will let you go, that ye may sacrifice to the LORD your God in the wilderness; only ye shall not go very (29) And

a Wis. 16. 9.

(24) The land was corrupted.-Rather, as in the margin, destroyed. Kalisch observes, "These insects" -i.e., the kakerlaque (Blatta Orientalis), "really fill the land, and molest men and beasts; they consume all sorts of materials, devastate the country, and are in so far more detrimental than the gnats, as they destroy also the property of the Egyptians."

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(25) Pharaoh called for Moses.-Pharaoh suffered from the kakerlaque equally with his subjects, or rather, more than his subjects. It was upon him," inflicting its painful bites (verse 21); it was upon his palaces (verse 21), destroying his rich and magnificent furni ture; it was upon his lands, ravaging and devastating them (verse 24). He therefore gave way before this plague almost at once, and without waiting for any remonstrance on the part of the magicians or others, "called for Moses."

In the land.-Pretending to grant the request made of him, Pharaoh mars all by this little clause. A three days' journey into the wilderness had been demanded from the first (chap. v. 3), and no less could be accepted.

(26) It is not meet so to do.-Pressed to remain "in the land," and sacrifice, Moses deemed it right to explain to the king why this was impossible. The Israelites would have to "sacrifice the abomination of the Egyptians"—i.e., animals of which the Egyptians abominated the killing; and if they did this in the presence of Egyptians, a riot would be certain to break out-perhaps a civil war would ensue. The animalworship of the Egyptians is a certain, and generally recognised, fact. It seemed to the Greeks and Romans the most striking characteristic of the Egyptian religion. (See Herod. ii. 65-76; Diod. Sic. i. 82-84; Cic. De Nat. Deor. i. 36; &c.) The sacrificial animals of the Hebrews-sheep, goats, and cattle-were all of them sacred animals, either to the Egyptians generally, or to the inhabitants of certain districts. A Theban could not endure the sacrifice of a sheep, nor a Mendesian that of a goat (Herod. ii. 42). White cows and heifers-perhaps cows and heifers generally-were sacred to Isis-Athor. Any bull-calf might be an Apis; and it could not be known whether he was Apis or not till the priests had examined him (Herod. iii. 28). The extent to which the Egyptians carried their rage when

Moses said, Behold, I go out from thee, and I will intreat the LORD that the swarms of flies may depart from Pharaoh, from his servants, and from his people, to morrow: but let not Pharaoh deal deceitfully any more in not letting the people go to sacrifice to the LORD.

(30) And Moses went out from Pharaoh, and intreated the LORD. (31) And the LORD did according to the word of Moses; and he removed the swarms of flies from Pharaoh, from his servants, and from his people; there remained.

a sacred animal was killed in their presence is illustrated by many facts in history. On one occasion a Roman ambassador, who had accidentally killed a cat, was torn to pieces by the populace (Diod. Sic. i. 83). On another, war broke out between the Oxyrinchites and the Cynopolites, because the latter had eaten one of the fish considered sacred by the former (Plutarch, De Isid. et Osir. § 44). The fear of Moses was thus not at all groundless.

Will they not stone us?—This is the first mention of "stoning" in Scripture or elsewhere. It was not a legalised Egyptian punishment; but probably it was everywhere one of the earliest, as it would be one of the simplest, modes of wreaking popular vengeance. Eschylus mentions it (Sept. c. Th. 183), also Herodotus (v. 38). It was known in ancient Persia (Ctes. Fr. 50).

(27) As he shall command us.-Comp. chap. x. 26-" We know not with what we must serve the Lord, until we come thither."

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(29) And Moses said, Behold I will intreat the Lord.-Moses accepted Pharaoh's second promise, and took no special exception to its condition only ye shall not go very far away." He had distinctly stated his own demand, which was for a three days' journey into the wilderness" (chaps. v. 3, viii. 27). It was for Pharaoh to settle with himself whether he considered that distance "very far" or not. As he made no clear objection to the distance, Moses was bound to suppose that he allowed it.

Let not Pharaoh deal deceitfully any more. -God's servants must rebuke even kings when they openly break the moral law (1 Sam. xiii. 13, xv. 16-23; 2 Sam. xii. 7-12; 1 Kings xxi. 20-22; Matt. xiv. 4, &c.). Pharaoh had promised unconditionally to let the people go if the frogs were removed (verse 8), and had then flagrantly broken his word. Moses was right to rebuke his "deceit."

(31) There remained not one.-The sudden and entire removal of a plague like this at the word of Moses was almost as great a miracle as its sudden coming at his word, and is therefore, when it happened, carefully recorded. (See chap. x. 19.) It seems not to have happened with the frogs (verses 11-13) or with the mosquitoes.

not one. (32) And Pharaoh hardened his heart at this time also, neither would he let the people go.

CHAPTER IX.-(1) Then the LORD said unto Moses, Go in unto Pharaoh, and tell him, Thus saith the LORD God of the Hebrews, Let my people go, that they may serve me. (2) For if thou refuse to let them go, and wilt hold them still, (3) behold, the hand of the LORD is upon thy cattle which is in the field, upon the horses, upon the asses, upon the camels, upon the oxen, and upon the sheep there shall be a very grievous murrain. (4) And the LORD shall sever between the cattle of Israel and the

(32) Pharaoh hardened his heart at this time also. Comp. verse 15. Again, it is after being impressed, and partially relenting, that Pharaoh hardens his own heart.

IX.

THE FIFTH PLAGUE.

(1-3) The nature of the fifth plague is manifest, and admits of no dispute. It was a rinderpest, or murrain upon cattle; which, however, unlike most similar disorders, attacked the greater number of the domesticated animals-horses, asses, camels, oxen, and sheep. Thus it was " very grievous" (verse 3). Horses were highly prized by the Egyptians, and were a comparatively recent importation, having been unknown before the time of the seventeenth, or" Shepherd " Dynasty. They were at first used only in war; then by rich men, in peace, to draw their chariots. They had now, however, it would seem, come to be employed also in agriculture. (Note the words "in the field.") Asses were the ordinary beasts of burthen, and abounded in Egypt anciently -as indeed they do at the present day. The Egyptian monuments mention cases where a single landowner owned as many as seven or eight hundred of them. Camels are not represented by the Egyptian sculptors, but are mentioned in the inscriptions (Chabas, Etudes sur l'Antiquité Historique, pp. 400-413), and must have been employed in the trade between Egypt and the Sinaitic peninsula. Both oxen and sheep were numerous, and constituted a great part of the wealth of individuals. The plague fell upon such animals as were "in the field "at the time-i.e., in the open air, and not confined in stables or sheds. It was the Egyptian practice to house a considerable portion of their cattle; but at the probable season of this plague-December or January—the majority would be in the pastures. Thus the Egyptian losses were very heavy, and the king, no doubt, suffered with the rest, for the Egyptian monarchs were large cattle-owners (Gen. xlvii. 6, 17). The Pharaoh was, however, less impressed by this plague than by the fourth, and made no sign of submission.

(4) The Lord shall sever.-Comp. chap. viii. 22. Apparently Israel had been subjected to the first, second, and third plagues, which caused annoyance only, and not loss. Their exemption began with the

The Sixth Plague.

cattle of Egypt: and there shall nothing die of all that is the children's of Israel. (5) And the LORD appointed a set time, saying, To morrow the LORD shall do this thing in the land. (6) And the LORD did that thing on the morrow, and all the cattle of Egypt died: but of the cattle of the children of Israel died not one. (7) And Pharaoh sent, and, behold, there was not one of the cattle of the Israelites dead. And the heart of Pharaoh was hardened, and he did not let the people go.

(8) And the LORD said unto Moses and unto Aaron, Take to you handfuls of ashes of the furnace, and let Moses sprinkle it toward the heaven in the

fourth plague, and then probably continued without intermission, though it is not always mentioned.

(5) The Lord appointed a set time. -As murrain is not uncommon in Egypt, especially in the Delta, and the coming affliction might therefore be ascribed by the Egyptians to natural causes, God took care to mark its miraculous character (1) by appointing a time; (2) by exempting the cattle of Israel; (3) by making the disease fatal to all the cattle of the Egyptians that were left "in the field."

To morrow. The delay allowed any Egyptians who believed Moses to save their cattle by housing

them.

(7) Pharaoh sent.-The Pharaoh evidently did not believe it possible that there should be such a widespread destruction of the Egyptian cattle without the Hebrew cattle suffering at all. He therefore sent persons to inquire and report on the facts. These persons found the announcement of Moses fulfilled to the letter. This was the more surprising, as Goshen consisted mainly of the low flat tract bordering on the Menzaleh marshes.

The heart of Pharaoh was hardened.-Even the exact correspondence of the result with the announcement did not soften the heart of the king. It remained dull and unimpressed-literally, "heavy" (kábed). Loss of property would not much distress an absolute monarch, who could easily exact the value of what he had lost from his subjects.

THE SIXTH PLAGUE.

(8-10) Here, again, there is little question of what the plague was. Doubts may be entertained as to its exact character, and its proper medical designation, but all agree, and cannot but agree, that it was a visitation of the bodies of men with a severe cutaneous disorder, accompanied by pustules or ulcers. It was not announced beforehand to the Egyptians, nor were they allowed the opportunity of escaping it. Like the third plague, it was altogether of the nature of a judgment; and the judgment was a severe one. Now, for the first time, was acute suffering inflicted on the persons of men; now, for the first time, was it shown how Jehovah could smite with a terrible disease; and if with a disease, why not with death? No doubt those stricken suffered unequally; but with some the affliction may have resembled the final affliction of Job, when he was