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con paratively, than perhaps in any other country; and this because all distinction and rank arises almost entirely from educated talent. The choice of official persons, who form the real aristocracy of the country, is guided, with a very few exceptions, by the possession of those qualities, and the country is therefore as ably ruled as it could be under the circumstances." 'Les lettrés (observed a correspondent of ours from Peking) ainsi honorés par les Hân, ont acquis un grand ascendant sur le peuple; la politique s'en est emparé dans toutes les dynasties, et c'est sans doute à cette réunion des esprits que la Chine doit son bonheur, sa paix, et sa prosperité." The official aristocracy, content with their solid rank and power, aim at no external display: on the contrary, a certain affectation, on their part, of patriarchal simplicity operates as a sumptuary law, and gives a corresponding tone to the habits of the people. We are bound to admit that some evil results from this: superfl..ous wealth, in the hands of the vulgar possessors of it, is driven to find a vent occasionally in the gratifications of private sensuality.

Superfluous wealth, however, is no very common occurrence in China. A man's sons divide his property between them, or rather live upon it in common, and the only right of primogeniture seems to consist in the eldest being a sort of steward, or trustee, for the estate. The temptations to immoderate accumulation are not so great as with us, nor the opportunities for it so frequent, where the ordinary channels of commerce are liable neither to such spring tides, nor to such violent ebbs. We must repeat that the fortunes made by Hoppos and Hong merchants at Canton are no examples whatever of the usual state of things in the empire, in cases where natives only are concerned. The real aristocracy of the country being official, and not hereditary, there are no families to

be perpetuated by a system of entails; and if a man were willing to transmit his possessions in the shape of endless settlements, the law will not let him.

It is an observation of Hume, that "the absence of any hereditary aristocracy may secure the intestine tranquillity of the state, by making it impossible for faction or rebellion to find any powerful heads." This, we fancy, is exactly the principle on which the Chinese Government is so jealous of any undue perpetuation of greatness in families*. There are certain hereditary titles, descending one step in rank through five generations, and the privilege of wearing the yellow and red girdles, which serve to distinguish the numerous descendants of the imperial family; but these, though they are certainly a class of titular nobility, are far from being the real aristocracy of the country, and, without personal merit, they are little considered †. The Chinese have a saying, that "by learning, the sons of the common people become great; without learning, the sons of the great become mingled with the mass of the people."

All real rank of consequence being determined by talent, the test of this is afforded at the public examinations. These are open to the poorest persons; and only some classes, as menial servants, comedians, and the lowest agents of the police, are excluded. The Government seems to consider that its own stability is best secured by placing the greatest talent, if not always the purest virtue, in offices of trust. With a view to promoting the efficiency of their standing army, the Manchow Tartar Emperors have established

*There is a law in their penal code denouncing death not only to him who recommends the elevation of a civil officer to an hereditary title, but to him in whose favour the recommendation is made.

+ Du Halde observes, "they have no lands; and as the Emperor cannot give them all pensions, some live in great poverty.”

a military examination, in which the relative merit of mandarins in martial exercises is distinguished by similar grades.

It is time, however, that we proceed to consider the actual machinery of government, commencing with its supreme head, the Emperor. His titles are the "Son of Heaven," the "Ten thousand Years." He is worshipped with divine honours, and with the attribute of ubiquity throughout the empire. The following is from an eye-witness to the celebration of the Emperor's birth-day at Peking*, and the ceremony is universal and simultaneous through the chief cities of China. "The first day was consecrated to the purpose of rendering a solemn, sacred, and devout homage to the supreme majesty of the Emperor. The princes, tributaries, ambassadors, great officers of state, and principal mandarins, were assembled in a vast hall, and upon particular notice were introduced into an inner building, bearing at least the semblance of a temple. It was chiefly furnished with great instruments of music, among which were sets of cylindrical bells, suspended in a line from ornamented frames of wood, and gradually diminishing in size from one extremity to the other, and also triangular pieces of metal, arranged in the same order as the bells. To the sound of these instruments, a slow and solemn hymn was sung by eunuchs, who had such a command over their voices as to resemble the effect of the musical glasses at a distance. The performers were directed in gliding from one tone to another by the striking of a shrill and sonorous cymbal; and the judges of music among the gentlemen of the embassy were much pleased with their execution. The whole had indeed a grand effect. During the performance, and at particular signals, nine times repeated, all the persons present prostrated themselves nine times, *Staunton, vol. ii. p. 255.

except the ambassador and his suite, who made a profound obeisance. But he whom it was meant to honour continued, as if it were in imitation of the Deity, invisible the whole time. The awful impression made upon the minds of men by this apparent worship of a fellow-mortal was not to be effaced by any immediate scenes of sport or gaiety, which were postponed to the following day."

The Emperor worships Heaven, and the people worship the Emperor. It is remarkable that with all this the Sovereign, in styling himself, used occasionally this term of affected humility," the imperfect man;" which presents a contrast to the inflated and self-laudatory expressions of most Oriental monarchs. Every device of state, however, is used to keep up by habit the impression of awe. No person whatever can pass before the outer gate of the palace in any vehicle or on horseback. The vacant throne, or a screen of yellow silk, are equally worshipped with his actual presence. An imperial despatch is received in the provinces with offerings of incense and prostration, looking towards Peking. There is a paved walk to the principal audience-hall, on which none can tread but the Emperor. At the same time, as if his transcendent majesty could derive no increase from personal decorations, he is distinguished from his court, unlike most Asiatic Sovereigns, by being more plainly clad than those by whom he is surrounded. In Lord Macartney's mission, while the crowd of mandarins was covered with embroidery and splendour, the Emperor appeared in a dress of plain brown silk, and a black velvet cap with a single pearl in front. Yellow, as the imperial colour, would seem at present rather to distinguish things pertaining to his use, or connected with him in other ways, than to constitute a part of his actual garments, except perhaps on very great occasions. The Sovereign

of China has the absolute disposal of the succession, and, if he pleases, can name his heir out of his own family. This has descended from time immemorial; and the ancient monarchs, Yaou and Shun, are famous examples of such a mode of selection. The imperial authority or sanction to all public acts is conveyed by the impression of a seal, some inches square, and composed of jade, a greenish white stone, called by the Chinese Yu. Any particular directions or remarks by the Emperor himself are added in red, commonly styled "the vermilion pencil." All imperial edicts of a special nature, after being addressed to the proper tribunal, or other authority, are promulged in the Peking Gazette, which contains nothing but what relates to the supreme Government, that is, either reports to the Emperor, or mandates from him. It is death to falsify any paper therein contained: but it must be observed, that these special edicts of the Sovereign, as applicable to the exigencies of particular cases, either in aggravation or mitigation of punishment, are not allowed to be applied as precedents in penal jurisdiction*. There is more wisdom in this rule than in that which gave to the rescripts of the Roman Emperors, in individual cases, the force of perpetual laws, a system which has very properly been called "arguing from particulars to generals."

As Pontifex Maximus, or high-priest of the empire, the "Son of Heaven" alone, with his immediate representatives, sacrifices in the Government temples, with victims and incense. These rites, preceded as they are by fasting and purification, bear a perfect resemblance to the offerings with which we are familiar in the history of antiquity. No hierarchy is maintained at the public expense, nor any priesthood attached to the Confucian or government religion; as the Sovereign and his great officers perform that part. * Penal Code, Sect. 415.

VOL. I.

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