an excellent cook, and most contemptible prince. When the great emergencies of the state required his presence and attention, he was engaged in conversation with the philosopher Plotinus, 154 wasting his time in trifling or licentious pleasures, preparing his initiation to the Grecian mysteries, or soliciting a place in the Areopagus of Athens. His profuse magnificence insulted the general poverty; the solemn ridicule of his triumphs impressed a deeper sense of the public disgrace,155 The repeated intelligence of invasions, defeats, and rebellions he received with a careless smile; and singling out, with affected contempt, some particular production of the lost province, he carelessly asked whether Rome must be ruined unless it was supplied with linen from Egypt and Arras cloth from Gaul? There were, however, a few short moments in the life of Gallienus when, exasperated by some recent injury, he suddenly appeared the intrepid soldier and the cruel tyrant; till, satiated with blood or fatigued by resistance, he insensibly sunk into the natural mildness and indolence of his character. 156 The thirty tyrants. At a time when the reins of government were held with so loose a hand, it is not surprising that a crowd of usurpers should start up in every province of the empire against the son of Valerian. It was probably some ingenious fancy, of comparing the thirty tyrants of Rome with the thirty tyrants of Athens, that 154 He was on the point of giving Plotinus a ruined city of Campania to try the experiment of realising Plato's Republic. See the Life of Plotinus, by Porphyry, in Fabricius's Biblioth. Græc. 1. iv. 155 A medal which bears the head of Gallienus has perplexed the antiquarians by its legend and reverse; the former Galliena Augusta, the latter Ubique Pax. M. Spanheim supposes that the coin was struck by some of the enemies of Gallienus, and was designed as a severe satire on that effeminate prince. But as the use of irony may seem unworthy of the gravity of the Roman mint, M. de Vallemont has deduced from a passage of Trebellius Pollio (Hist. August. p. 198 [Pollio, xxx. Tyranni, de Celso, 28]) an ingenious and natural solution. Galliena was first-cousin to the emperor. By delivering Africa from the usurper Celsus, she deserved the title of Augusta. On a medal in the French king's collection we read a similar inscription of Faustina Augusta round the head of Marcus Aurelius. With regard to the Ubique Pax, it is easily explained by the vanity of Gallienus, who seized, perhaps, the occasion of some momentary calm. See Nouvelles de la République des Lettres, Janvier, 1700, p. 21-34.a The reign 156 This singular character has, I believe, been fairly transmitted to us. of his immediate successor was short and busy; and the historians who wrote before the elevation of the family of Constantine could not have the most remote interest to misrepresent the character of Gallienus. "Eckhel brings forward serious objections to the interpretation of Vallemont. The obverse of the medal represents the head of Gallienus crowned with ears of corn; and Eckhel conjectures that it may have been struck to commemorate the wish of Gallienus to be worshipped in the character of Ceres, especially since he might claim the merits of Ceres after the death of Emilianus in Egypt, by which Rome again obtained its usual supply of corn. That Gallienus should have caused such medals to be struck will not appear surprising when we recollect that Nero was represented on his coins with the attributes of Apollo, and Commodus with those of Hercules. (Eckhel, vol. vii. p. 411, seq.)—S. number was induced the writers of the Augustan History to select that celebrated number, which has been gradually received into a popular appellation. 157 But in every light the parallel is idle and defective. What resemblance can we discover between a council of thirty persons, the united oppressors of a single city, and an uncertain list of independent rivals, who rose and fell in irregular succession through the extent of a vast empire? Nor can the number of thirty be completed, unless we include in the account the women and children who were honoured with the Imperial title. The reign of Gallienus, Their real distracted as it was, produced only nineteen pretenders to no more than the throne Cyriades, Macrianus, Balista, Odenathus, nineteen. and Zenobia in the east; in Gaul and the western provinces, Posthumus, Lollianus, Victorinus and his mother Victoria, Marius, and Tetricus. In Illyricum and the confines of the Danube, Ingenuus, Regillianus, and Aureolus; in Pontus, 158 Saturninus; in Isauria, Trebellianus; Piso in Thessaly; Valens in Achaia; Æmilianus in Egypt; and Celsus in Africa. To illustrate the obscure monuments of the life and death of each individual would prove a laborious task, alike barren of instruction and of amusement. We may content ourselves with investigating some general characters, that most strongly mark the condition of the times and the manners of the men, their pretensions, their motives, their fate, and the destructive consequences of their usurpation.159 It is sufficiently known that the odious appellation of Tyrant was often employed by the ancients to express the illegal character seizure of supreme power, without any reference to the and merit abuse of it. Several of the pretenders who raised the tyrants. of the 157 Pollio expresses the most minute anxiety to complete the number." 158 The place of his reign is somewhat doubtful; but there was a tyrant in Pontus, and we are acquainted with the seat of all the others. 159 Tillemont, tom. iii. p. 1163, reckons them somewhat differently. Compare a dissertation of Manso on the Thirty Tyrants, at the end of his Leben Constantins des Grossen. Breslau, 1817. -M. It 2. The following is Clinton's list. differs in some degree from the preceding lists, and contains two names (Cecrops and Antoninus) not mentioned by Trebellius:-1. Cecrops, Zosim. i. 38. Antoninus, Zosim. ibid. 3. Cyriades. 4. Postumus. 5. Lælianus. 6. Marius. 7. Victorinus. 8. Tetricus. 9. Ingenuus. 10. Regalianus. 11. Aureolus. 12. Maerianus. 13. Odenathus. 14. Zenobia. 15. Piso. 16. Valens. 17. Emilianus. 18. Saturninus. 19. Trebellianus. 20. Celsus. (Clinton, Fast. Rom. vol. ii. p. 58, seq.)-S. Their ob standard of rebellion against the emperor Gallienus were shining models of virtue, and almost all possessed a considerable share of vigour and ability. Their merit had recommended them to the favour of Valerian, and gradually promoted them to the most important commands of the empire. The generals who assumed the title of Augustus were either respected by their troops for their able conduct and severe discipline, or admired for valour and success in war, or beloved for frankness and generosity. The field of victory was often the scene of their election; and even the armourer Marius, the most contemptible of all the candidates for the purple, was distinguished however by intrepid courage, matchless strength, and blunt honesty.160 His mean and recent trade cast, indeed, an air of ridicule on his elevation; but his birth could not be more obscure than was that of the greater part of his rivals, who were scure birth. born of peasants, and enlisted in the army as private soldiers. In times of confusion every active genius finds the place assigned him by nature; in a general state of war military merit is the road to glory and to greatness. Of the nineteen tyrants Tetricus only was a senator; Piso alone was a noble. The blood of Numa, through twenty-eight successive generations, ran in the veins of Calphurnius Piso,161 who, by female alliances, claimed a right of exhibiting, in his house, the images of Crassus and of the great Pompey.162 His ancestors had been repeatedly dignified with all the honours which the commonwealth could bestow; and, of all the ancient families of Rome, the Calphurnian alone had survived the tyranny of the Cæsars. The personal qualities of Piso added new lustre to his race. usurper Valens, by whose order he was killed, confessed, with deep remorse, that even an enemy ought to have respected the sanctity of Piso; and, although he died in arms against Gallienus, the senate, with the emperor's generous permission, decreed the triumphal ornaments to the memory of so virtuous a rebel.163 The 160 See the speech of Marius, in the Augustan History, p. 187. [Pollio, xxx. Tyranni, de Mario, 7.] The accidental identity of names was the only circumstance that could tempt Pollio to imitate Sallust. 161 Vos, O Pompilius sanguis! is Horace's address to the Pisos. See Art. Poet. v. 292, with Dacier's and Sanadon's notes. 162 Tacit. Annal. xv. 48, Hist. i. 15. In the former of these passages we may venture to change paterna into materna. In every generation from Augustus to Alexander Severus, one or more Pisos appear as consuls. A Piso was deemed worthy of the throne by Augustus (Tacit. Annal. i. 13); a second headed a formidable conspiracy against Nero; and a third was adopted, and declared Cæsar, by Galba. 163 Hist. August. p. 195. [Pollio, xxx. Tyranni, de Pisone, 20.] The senate, in a moment of enthusiasm, seems to have presumed on the approbation of Gallienus. Marius was killed by a soldier who had formerly served as a workman in his shop, and who exclaimed as he struck, "Behold the sword which thyself hast forged." Treb. [Pollio] in vitâ.-G. : of their The lieutenants of Valerian were grateful to the father, whom they esteemed. They disdained to serve the luxurious indolence The causes of his unworthy son. The throne of the Roman world was rebellion. unsupported by any principle of loyalty; and treason against such a prince might easily be considered as patriotism to the state. Yet if we examine with candour the conduct of these usurpers, it will appear that they were much oftener driven into rebellion by their fears than urged to it by their ambition. They dreaded the cruel suspicions of Gallienus they equally dreaded the capricious violence of their troops. If the dangerous favour of the army had imprudently declared them deserving of the purple, they were marked for sure destruction; and even prudence would counsel them to secure a short enjoyment of empire, and rather to try the fortune of war than to expect the hand of an executioner. When the clamour of the soldiers invested the reluctant victims with the ensigns of sovereign authority, they sometimes mourned in secret their approaching fate. "You have lost," said Saturninus, on the day of his elevation, "you "have lost a useful commander, and you have made a very wretched emperor.' 66 99 164 The apprehensions of Saturninus were justified by the repeated experience of revolutions. Of the nineteen tyrants who Their violent started up under the reign of Gallienus, there was not one deaths. who enjoyed a life of peace, or a natural death. As soon as they were invested with the bloody purple, they inspired their adherents with the same fears and ambition which had occasioned their own revolt. Encompassed with domestic conspiracy, military sedition, and civil war, they trembled on the edge of precipices, in which, after a longer or shorter term of anxiety, they were inevitably lost. These precarious monarchs received, however, such honours as the flattery of their respective armies and provinces could bestow; but their claim, founded on rebellion, could never obtain the sanction of law or history. Italy, Rome, and the senate, constantly adhered to the cause of Gallienus, and he alone was considered as the sovereign of the empire. That prince condescended indeed to acknowledge the victorious arms of Odenathus, who deserved the honourable distinction by the respectful conduct which he always maintained towards the son of Valerian. With the general applause of the Romans, and the consent of Gallienus, the senate conferred the title of Augustus on the brave Palmyrenian; and seemed to intrust him with the government of the East, which he already possessed, in so independent a manner, that, like a private succession, he bequeathed it to his illustrious widow Zenobia." 165 164 Hist. August. p. 196. [Pollio, xxx. Tyranni, de Saturnino, 22.] 165 The association of the brave Palmyrenian was the most popular act of the whole Fatal consequences of these The rapid and perpetual transitions from the cottage to the throne, and from the throne to the grave, might have amused an indifferent philosopher, were it possible for a philosopher usurpations. to remain indifferent amidst the general calamities of human kind. The election of these precarious emperors, their power and their death, were equally destructive to their subjects and adherents. The price of their fatal elevation was instantly discharged to the troops by an immense donative drawn from the bowels of the exhausted people. However virtuous was their character, however pure their intentions, they found themselves reduced to the hard necessity of supporting their usurpation by frequent acts of rapine and cruelty. When they fell they involved armies and provinces in their fall. There is still extant a most savage mandate from Gallienus to one of his ministers, after the suppression of Ingenuus, who had assumed the purple in Illyricum. "It is not enough," says that soft but inhuman prince, "that you exterminate such as have ap"peared in arms: the chance of battle might have served me as effectually. The male sex of every age must be extirpated; pro"vided that, in the execution of the children and old men, you can "contrive means to save our reputation. Let every one die who has dropped an expression, who has entertained a thought against me, "against me, the son of Valerian, the father and brother of so many princes.166 Remember that Ingenuus was made emperor: tear, kill, hew in pieces. I write to you with my own hand, and would "inspire you with my own feelings." 167 Whilst the public forces of the state were dissipated in private quarrels, the defenceless provinces lay exposed to every invader. The bravest usurpers were compelled, by the perplexity of their situation, to conclude ignominious treaties with the common enemy, to purchase with oppressive tributes the neutrality or services of the barbarians, and to introduce hostile and independent nations into the heart of the Roman monarchy.168 66 66 66 Such were the barbarians, and such the tyrants, who, under the reigns of Valerian and Gallienus, dismembered the provinces, and reduced the empire to the lowest pitch of disgrace and ruin, from whence it seemed impossible that it should ever emerge. As far as reign of Gallienus. Hist. August. p. 180. [Pollio, Gallieni II. c. 12.] [It took place A.D. 264.-S.] 166 Gallienus had given the titles of Cæsar and Augustus to his son Saloninus, slain at Cologne by the usurper Posthumus. A second son of Gallienus succeeded to the name and rank of his elder brother. Valerian, the brother of Gallienus, was also associated to the empire: several other brothers, sisters, nephews, and nieces of the emperor formed a very numerous royal family. See Tillemont, tom. iii., and M. de Brequigny in the Mémoires de l'Académie, tom. xxxii. p. 262. 167 Hist. August. p. 188. [Pollio, xxx. Tyran. de Ingenuo, 8.] 169 Regillianus had some bands of Roxolani in his service; Posthumus a body of Franks. It was, perhaps, in the character of auxiliaries that the latter introduced themselves into Spain. |