TRADE SOCIETIES. Trade Societies and Guilds-Objects of Trades Unions—Uniformity of Unious TRADE SOCIETIES are, in many respects, a revival of Trades the old guilds, formed at a time when charters of and Guilds. incorporation were granted to retailers and artisans for engrossing and monopolising all kinds of business. But they differ from them in this respect, that whilst those guilds and companies could enforce their monopolies by the powers granted to them by their charters, trade societies or unions rest only on the authority granted to them by their own members, and whilst those exercised their rights and privileges as against the whole community, these can bring their action to bear only upon the members of their own societies. There is, moreover, another essential difference. The old guilds and companies were composed of retailers and artisans, but trade societies or unions are formed exclusively of the latter, with a certain number of labourers. Nor must we forget that, whilst the objects of the old guilds and companies were economic and charitable, trade societies aim also at elevating the workman to a position of respectability and influence in the great body politic. The most important object trade societies have in view is to act upon wages. Their motto is "a fair Principal day's wages for a fair day's work." object to raise the rate of Wages. Starting from the principle, that alone and without union the workman has no chance of improving his income, such societies are formed, either professedly or by implication, for the purpose of maintaining certain rates. of wages, obtaining an increase of the same whenever opportunities occur, resisting any attempt at reduction, preventing one employer paying less than another for the same amount and quality of work, and for regulating the supply of labour as much as possible in order to check any inordinate competition. Though well acquainted with the fact that wages are much more regulated by the laws of supply and demand than by any concert among the men, or any representations of trade societies, they think that the operation of economic laws may be assisted or counteracted by the action of conflicting forces; and they imagine that by their efforts they may enable their members to participate at a much earlier time the benefit of any improvement in the condition of their industry. On this they are strengthened by the report of the Committee of the Social Science Association, which stated, "That leaving out of account the accidental benefits, and the accidental mischiefs of trade societies, it must be admitted that they have at times assisted the workmen in a trade more speedily to realise higher wages when the profits and wages in it have been rising, and they have, in some instances, been of advantage to the master by producing greater uniformity of wages throughout a trade." In forming an opinion upon questions of so delicate a character, it is necessary clearly to distinguish the permanent from the temporary influence of any law or force. Though it is quite possible that the action of trade societies may temporarily have a direct and beneficial influence in favour of the workman, it is quite evident that permanently all their efforts must prove fruitless as against the operation of the more certain and inevitable economic laws which regulate wages. of Wages. One great object of such societies is to promote, as Uniformity far as possible, uniformity of wages, aiming not so much at perfect uniformity, as to fix a minimum rate for all those working in the same trade or occupation. Surely they cannot be blind to the difference of skill and industry among the workers. They must know that a man of indifferent ability cannot earn as much as a man of good ability, and that in any case steadiness and skill will always secure to the workman regular employment to the preference of the indolent and unskilful. Uniformity of wages is a great desideratum ; and, as in the case of uniformity of price, there are economic laws in operation which must inevitably tend towards it. But it is one thing to assist the operation of natural laws, and another to enforce general principles, either before the law is sufficiently in operation, or, in special cases, where the same could never apply. and Over time. The effort to attain such uniformity being thwarted Piecework when wages are paid by piecework, many trade societies have opposed such a method of payment, contending that it offers better opportunities to masters to reduce wages, and induces men to work longer and harder than is advantageous for them, whilst where a middleman is required to settle the wages the workman's labour is charged with an additional payment. Although an unfair use may be made of this method of paying wages, can it be maintained that, as a rule, payment by piecework is unreasonable? The labourer is at liberty to work as much as he pleases; it is a matter of open contract in each case; and the master enters into an obligation to pay a given amount in relation to the e ship. work performed. In many instances, it might be shown, such a method of payment is fairer for the labourer than payment by the day. As regards overtime, trade societies do not object to it on occasional emergencies, but oppose it when it grows into a system, because excess of labour injures the health of the labourer, stupefies his moral energies, deprives him of time for rational enjoyment, and takes from him any opportunity for culture. They oppose it, too, also on the ground that whilst some labourers are thereby overwrought a much greater number are suffering from want of employment altogether. Reasons like these are unanswerable; and so long as the societies exercise their influence in this respect with reason and discrimination, they well deserve support and sympathy. Apprentice- Some societies also object to an excessive number of apprentices. In some cases they have rules restricting the number, and compelling the members to refuse to work if more are received. The defenders of the system say, first, that by thus requiring journeymen to undergo a proper training they best secure the continuance of that skill and dexterity which are requisite to obtain excellence in production; secondly, that they have a right to say to whom, and to what extent, they will teach to others the art in which they have been trained; and thirdly, that having once acquired this knowledge, at much expense, they have a right to take care lest those whom they have instructed should outbid them in the labour market. It is moreover asserted that since the sole object of the system of apprenticeship is the recruital of the ranks of the journeymen, thinned by the course of time, and it is based on the principle of gratuitous instruction on the one side, and gratuitous or slightly-paid labour on the other, it is a clear perversion of the system where apprentices are multiplied simply for the purpose of cheapening labour. The masters, of course, consider all rules restricting the number of apprentices as interfering with their rights, and as opposed to the personal liberty of the men. And political economy has always proclaimed the grand principle of "freedom of labour." Allowing that a certain time is necessary to learn any trade, and that a workman has the right to refuse instruction to any one, does the journeyman stand in the capacity of a teacher to the apprentice? The old practice of placing a boy under a journeyman has been generally given up. The apprentice is indentured to his master, and he covenants to teach him his trade in the way he thinks best. Under such circumstances the responsibility of teaching rests with the master, not with the journeyman. If the workman has a right to protect himself from competition, he should always remember that the master has also the right to choose labourers wherever he may find them. tion of Happily, the opposition to machinery is now quite Introducdisapproved of by the best societies, and our workmen Machinery. are as convinced as any other class that it is by our decided supremacy in mechanical contrivances that we have hitherto maintained the foremost place in manufacturing industry, whilst they have had abundant evidence of the fact that by the introduction of machinery the demand for labour is increased and not diminished. And if, in individual cases, ignorance still prevails on the subject, we need not wonder. Free trade is now generally admitted to have operated most beneficially to the true interests of the country, yet not a few among the middle and higher classes are yet incredulous of its advantages and ignorant of its working. Must we not excuse at least those who have themselves been injured by the introduction of machinery if they fail to regard them with friendship or good-will? When new machinery |