(1) Conjunction: Many were examined but few passed. (2) Relative pronoun: There was not a man but did his duty. (3) Adverb: He had but lately received his degree. (Here but only.) = (4) Preposition: All but one of our class graduated. (Here but = except.) 4. Since may be adverb, preposition, or conjunction. (1) Adverb: Robert Fulton died long since. (2) Preposition: I have been waiting here since noon. (3) Conjunction: Since he calls me, I feel it is my duty to go. 5. Fast may be adverb or adjective. (1) Adverb: The train ran very fast (2) Adjective: A fast train leaves every hour. 6. A few other adjectives are used as adverbs without change of form; as, hard, slow. 7. Like may be used as adjective or adverb, but not as preposition. It is classed as a preposition by some grammars because the noun following is objective case, either indirect object or object of to omitted. (1) Adjective: The son is very like his father. (2) Adverb: He works like a machine. Do not use like in place of as to connect a clause with the principal statement. The correct form is I think of my books as I do of my friends. 8. Near is used as adjective or adverb. (1) Adjective: An oak tree is near the barn. (2) Adverb: The men stopped very near us. 234. Some words of different meanings are incorrectly used as synonyms. 1. Likely cannot be expressed by liable. It is incor rect to say [He is liable to come at any moment.] The correct form is He is likely to come at any moment. 2. Loan means to lend, to give away, and should not be expressed by borrow. The correct forms are I will gladly loan my canoe to you. I should like to borrow your canoe from you. 3. Leave cannot be expressed by let. It is incorrect to say (1) [Will you leave me go?] (2) [They let their child at home.] The correct forms are (1) Will you let me go? (2) They leave their child at home. 4. Lie is intransitive and cannot be expressed by lay, which is transitive. The correct forms are (1) There they lie. (2) There they lay their books. 5. Sit is intransitive and cannot be expressed by set, which is transitive. The correct forms are (1) There they sit. (2) There they set a trap. 6. Beside cannot be expressed by besides. The correct forms are (1) He sat beside me. (2) How many came besides those named? PART II. COMPOSITION CHAPTER I ORAL COMPOSITION Who lacks the art to shape his thoughts, I hold, 235. Introduction. Whenever we put our thoughts and feelings into words in a clear, logical, connected way, we are producing a composition. We may give expression to thoughts in a sentence, in a paragraph, or in a number of paragraphs; in each case we are composing. 236. Oral Composition. You have been accustomed to think, perhaps, that only written work constitutes composition; but every spoken sentence, whether part of a conversation, of a recitation, or of an elaborate address, is composition too, and deserving of the same careful construction. Oral expression is more important than written, because it is more common and because the author's personality enters into it more forcefully. If you watch your spoken thoughts, aiming to be accurate and fluent in expressing yourself, you will become a good writer. Hence, it is necessary that you guard your daily speech both in and out of school, and in your history and science recitations as well as in your English recitation. 237. Kinds of Oral Composition. There are many different kinds of oral composition, ranging all the way from informal, every-day conversation to the most formal address. It is this informal oral composition, including conversation, the classroom recitation, reports, and reproductions, which should be of special interest to you. This you are using constantly. Moreover, mastery in this will lead to efficiency in the formal type of composition. 238. Conversation. The least formal kind of composition is conversation. As this is the most natural and the most frequent form of expression, it is here that habits of speech are formed-habits, as we have seen, which affect all composition work, written as well as oral. Therefore, you should admit to your conversation and spoken English only such expressions as will make for the best use of the mother tongue. It is an easy matter to watch conversation English, for the sentences are for the most part simple, and the individual remarks brief. Besides, conversation takes place between two or more people and the effort is divided. 239. Slang. The danger of using slang phrases is obvious. They are sure to reappear in unguarded moments when one does not want to use them. This is due to the fact that slang impoverishes the vocabulary by taking the place of good words. Consequently, when a person does not want to use the slang expression, he finds that he has no suitable words to express his meaning. Besides preventing the growth of vocabulary, slang has a tendency to weaken the power of discrimination. So insistent is the slang phrase that it responds on all occasions, not in one sense but in many, until finally it has no individuality whatever. Thus the meaning of slang expressions is constantly changing; the words themselves soon become worn out and give way to the newly coined slang. Because, then, slang is in a constant state of change, it should be avoided. A last reason urged against slang should, in itself, be sufficient to keep you from using it. Slang is for the most part vulgar, and its use indicates a lack of culture and refinement. 240. Provincial and Obsolete English. There are other forms of expression that should generally be excluded from one's vocabulary. These are expressions which are not universally understood, either because they have never come into general use or because they have gone out of general use; that is, they are not standard words. They are termed local or provincial if they have come into use in certain localities only; obsolete if they have gone out of general use. Some such expressions become fairly well established in colloquial speech, but even these will seldom be heard among people who use the best English. |