MODEL FOR THE GERUND:

We teach the art of reading aloud.

Reading is a gerund; it is modified by the adverb aloud. It is a noun in the objective case, object of the preposition of.

1. They sat all day to see great Pompey pass by. 2. Pray to the gods to stop the plague.

3. We hear life murmur, or see it glisten.

4. The organist lets his fingers wander as they list. 5. 'T is as easy now for the heart to be true

As for the grass to be green or skies to be blue. 6. To be is better than to seem.

7. The family is in mourning.

8. Seeing is believing.

9. We had agreed on a plan to meet once each week. 10. You should not live to eat but live by eating. 11. To sum up, the negative has established two things. 12. Readiness for war is a poor way to secure peace. 13. Is earth too poor to give us something to live for? 14. We made him answer for the deed.

15. I told the messenger to leave the note for you. 16. I come to bury Cæsar, not to praise him.

17. I rather choose to wrong the dead, to wrong myself and

you.

18. Cassius was said to have an itching palm.

19. I believe Brutus to be a noble Roman. 20. What is to be done but to confess all?

CHAPTER XVII

DEFECTIVE VERBS

154. The verbs may, can, must, ought, shall, and will are defective, lacking one or more of the principal parts.

155. The defective verbs may, can, shall, and will are conjugated in two tenses only, the present and the past. Must has no change of form; and ought has the sacred form, oughtest.

156. May has two uses.

1. It is used in the indicative mode to express ability or permission, and is always followed by an infinitive without to; as,

Ability: A poor man may become President.
Permission: You may go to the concert.

2. It is used in the subjunctive to express doubt, wish, or purpose; as,

Doubt:
Wish:

It

may be true, but I doubt it.

May your lot be cast in pleasant places.

O that you might have come to our rescue. Purpose: We strive that we may win the prize.

157. Can is used in the indicative or the subjunctive, and expresses ability. It is always followed by an infinitive without to; as,

Indicative: I can work. I could work.

Subjunctive: If I could find him, I should be happy.

Could is an irregular spelling, made in imitation of should and would. The l is not properly a part of the spelling.

158. Must is always followed by an infinitive without to. It is past tense in form, but is used as a present or future tense when followed by a present infinitive; as a past tense when followed by the perfect infinitive; as,

1. I must be about my father's business.

2. You must have reached the goal first.

159. Ought is always followed by an infinitive with to. Like must, it is past tense in form, but is used as a present, past, or future according to the tense of the infinitive which follows. It is used in the indicative mode only; as,

(1) You ought to honor your country's flag.
(2) We ought to have observed the rule.

1. Since ought has no participle, it cannot form the perfect or pluperfect tense. It is therefore never correct to say “had ought,” as, "You had ought to go."

2. Should may be used in place of ought to express duty or obligation. It is preferred with the perfect infinitive; as,

We should have observed the rule.

160. Shall and will are used only as auxiliary verbs. They unite with the infinitives of any verb to form the future tense; as,

Future:

I shall praise; he will praise. Future Perfect: I shall have praised; he will have

praised.

Though should is the past tense of shall and would is the past tense of will, the use of each auxiliary is distinctive and must be considered by itself as if each were an independent verb.

161. The Uses of shall and will

1. Simple future time has

shall in the first person,

will in the second and third.

By simple future time is meant a statement about the future without any inference of threat, determination, or promise; as,

will in the first person,

shall in the second and third persons.

EXAMPLES:

I will fight it out if it costs all I have.
You shall not lord it over me.

They shall rue this day's work.

EXCEPTION 1: When shall of the first person is quoted so that the person changes from first to second or third, shall is retained with the second or third person; as,

Direct Discourse:
We shall play tennis to-morrow.
Indirect Discourse, 2d person: You say you shall play tennis to-

morrow.

Indirect Discourse, 3d person: They say they shall play tennis

to-morrow.

EXCEPTION 2: In questions of the second person, where the answers will be given in the first person and will denote simple future time, use shall; as,

(1) Shall you see each other again? We shall. (2) Shall

you permit the use of your name? Yes, I shall. EXCEPTION 3: Will is used in the second person to express a command if the authority of the speaker is unquestioned; as,

(1) You will proceed to the army at once.

(2) You will report to the admiral.

162. Should has two uses, as principal verb meaning ought (§ 159 : 2), and as auxiliary verb.

a. Should expressing duty or obligation is used with any person and is followed by the infinitive. It is always in the indicative mode, and its tense depends on the tense of the infinitive which follows; as,

(1) You should look before you leap.
(2) I should have observed the rules.
(3) They should have started earlier.