the result of general equality, both as to the medium duration of life and as to longevity by excess. The medium annual mortality varies materially indeed in different countries, still more in detached localities; but such diversities often belong to particular periods of life only (as that of infancy especially), and affect more partially than might be supposed the result with which we are here mainly concerned.

We have already spoken of the excellence of our recent English registration, as attested by the volumes annually published. Though they afford us no present cases of longevity equivalent to those of Jenkins and Parr, they indicate a medium duration of life, and a proportion of lives above 100, at least equal to what exists in any other country. Taking two recent years as a brief illustration, we find in 1852, when the population of England and Wales was 18 millions, there died 35 males above 100 years of age, the oldest 105,- and 53 females, of whom three reached 106, one 107, and two 108 years. In the following year, the register tells us of the deaths of 31 males, and 62 females, above 100,- the oldest male 109, the oldest female 110 years. We may add that in England it is probable that the low rate of medium annual mortality—not exceeding 24 per cent., and much below that of most of the European nations -expresses causes which must have some effect in multiplying the cases of great age. As we have already said, the influence of these causes is limited by various considerations; but we cannot reasonably exclude it; or deny that there may exist from this source certain mean differences of longevity in the several races and nations of mankind, as with respect to stature,

per cent. (in the provinces which include the basins of the Wolga, Don, and Dneiper, considerably more), a very high ratio compared with the 24 per cent. of England; but in some part explained by the great mortality of infants in Russia. These tables do not give detailed specification of ages above 90; but they record for several years the number of deaths of males upwards of 90, giving a mean of more than 5000 for each year, or probably 10,000, had females been included. This stands in large proportion to the population; but as at the date of 90 years before these returns, there was no system of registration in Russia, their accuracy admits of much doubt. In Austria, including Lombardy, in 1842, 446 persons died at ages above 100, out of about 460,000 deaths.

In the Prussian States in 1841, 786 males and 890 females died at ages upwards of 90. In Norway, in 1845, when the population approached 1,200,000, there were found to be 19 males, and 22 females, above 100. We could have wished for some specification of the actual ages here, Norway being reputed to afford examples of extreme longevity.

and other marked features of bodily conformation. The evidence is not yet sufficient to designate these differences. The reasons, already urged, lead us to believe that the disparity, when ascertained, will not be found considerable in amount.

In pursuing this question of human longevity, we pass from races and nations, where the large averages cancel, more or less completely, all subordinate inequalities, to the lower divisions of families, and local or limited communities, where new causes come into action no longer neutralising each other in their general results. All who rightly comprehend the law of averages will see at once that this must be so. It is impossible to particularise the many causes which affect the health and life of man in various localities; but the subject of longevity in families connects itself with one of the most curious questions in human physiology that of the hereditary transmission of physical qualities and peculiarities from parents to offspring. Every one is familiar with this fact in the case of other animals, especially in those domesticated by man, and made more useful to him in the varieties thus produced. We cannot affirm that the capacity for change, by such hereditary transmission, is as great in man himself; for except in the instance of the gigantic grenadiers of the King of Prussia, and possibly in the usages of some savage tribes, we are not aware of any attempt having ever been distinctly made to test this capacity. But in one form or other the fact is familiar to the observation of all; subject, indeed, to the anomalies which beset every part of this great mystery; yet exhibited in such numberless ways, on mind as well as body, as to show its mighty influence on the destinies of man. The most minute peculiarities of external features, as well as the grosser conditions of stature and bulk, are capable of being thus transmitted; and we cannot doubt, upon pathological observation, that the internal organs also,- possibly even that wonderful fluid which circulates through and ministers to all of them,―are subject to the same influence derived from one generation to another. The bearing of this influence on the formation of national diversities of feature and character, is a most curious collateral topic, but it would here be out of place.

What, however, clearly pertains to our subject, is the fact of longevity being hereditary, and running in particular families and lines of descent. This will at once be seen as a natural effect of the conditions just stated, and it is confirmed to us by all observation. Every group of tombstones tells a true tale, in this respect, of what lies underneath. Before the Titanic power of steam had given the speed and vehemence of the racehorse to our manner of travelling, we can remember the time

when we used to loiter through the country churchyard while horses were changed, or dinner prepared, at the road-side inn. Here, in its simplest form, may be learnt the truth of which we are speaking. On one family group of gravestones are recorded the many early deaths which give evidence of feeble or diseased constitutions:- another group tells in its dates the history of sound family temperament, and prolonged age from parents to offspring. Considering the various collateral influences ever present, we have often been surprised by the uniformity of this result. But these external influences are in effect continually tending to restore the balance, and do in the end retrieve that average in which all anomalies and inequalities finally merge. Intermarriage among different families, in successive generations, is obviously the natural provision against such inequalities. They sometimes, however, continue long; and occasionally assume very singular and morbid aspects, where, from some cause of local or social limitation, intermarriages are confined to a small community, without due admixture from without. This natural correction, then, little aided by human prevision, is a providential one, illustrated by analogies in other parts of the animal kingdom; but a mystery in itself, like all that belongs to the transmission and interblending of animal life through successive generations.

Descending from families to individuals-the last step in the scale we have thus been rapidly following-we find the contingencies which affect longevity to multiply largely, and become more obvious than when concealed under the averages of larger numbers. One important classification, however, here suggests itself, viz. that of the Sexes: though it would be difficult to prove it absolutely, we consider the strong presumption to be, that the natural term of life is the same in man and woman. It must be admitted indeed that our own Census, in common with that of many other civilised communities, shows a considerably larger proportion of females than of males attaining 100 years. But we believe the fact to be of ready explanation, without recurring to any recondite causes. Woman drops more easily than man into the passive existence of advanced age. The pursuits, pleasures, and passions of her antecedent life are for the most part of more tranquil kind, and do not so strongly contrast with the inert seclusion of later years. The expression of a French writer, Peu de gens savent être vieux,' has much closer application to one sex than the other. The incidents of childbearing might seem to lie on the other side. But these belong to, and affect, an earlier period of life; and can hardly be con

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sidered as equal in influence to the external casualties which more especially beset man, even to the extremity of age. We may further remark that the cases of extraordinary longevity, which we have denoted as a sort of index to the average, are found to give a general equality of result for the two sexes.

We come then finally to individual life in reference to longevity a subject which cannot be dealt with except under new conditions, and a larger reference to physical and moral causes in their influence on the animal economy of man. Of hereditary temperament we have already spoken. But apart from this, the whole of life teems with incidents which must needs affect, more or less, its duration. Every particular variation of health, however produced, has some definite relation, perceptible or not, to this result. The physical conditions and habits of the individual, whether those of luxurious sensuality, or of meagre poverty, are in constant action here; and associated with these, the various occupations, whether of choice or necessity, which minister to the livelihood of man. No argument is needful to show the bearing of the latter, both upon individuals and communities. In a manufacturing and commercial country especially, where population is more crowded, and where art and labour in their every branch are strained to the utmost reach of human exertion, life becomes subject to influences which act powerfully upon it, and tend perhaps on the whole to shorten its duration. The materials and documents we possess are not yet copious and exact enough to justify more certain conclusions on the subject. That some particular occupations abridge life, by bodily confinement, privation of good air, the direct action of noxious vapours, or other causes, is a fact too familiar to all. To this class of causes, acting more definedly, must be referred in part the difference between town and country longevity; testified in England by the mean annual mortality in the larger towns being twenty-six or twenty-seven in a thousand, while that of the whole kingdom does not exceed seventeen in the same number. This whole subject is one of high interest to our social welfare, and attention is now keenly awakened to it.

Curiosity may also be directed to the question how the learned professions stand as to relative longevity? In such an inquiry it is obvious that individual cases go very little way towards its solution. With respect to the profession of Law, we have no connected evidence sufficient to warrant a general conclusion, though many particular instances of great judges readily suggest themselves, who have continued to render eminent public services through a long term of age. The Insurance Offices, until recently at least, gave more distinct results as to the value of

clerical life in England. The Clergy, in fact, form their best description of insurances; affording an average of life considerably beyond that of any other class. We have much reason, however, to doubt whether the hard-worked clergyman of the present day will maintain this average for the future. The Medical profession, both in England and elsewhere, comes much lower in the scale of longevity. No material for satire can be drawn from this fact. The hard labours, broken rest, and anxious responsibilities of medical men, and their much greater exposure to infection and other causes of disease, well explain that whilst they are prolonging the lives of others they are shortening their own.

The longevity of statesmen and of men of letters offers other curious topics of inquiry; but of still greater difficulty, from the more doubtful definition of these classes. Here, again, we must reject the evidence of particular cases, as not leading to any certain conclusion. We read of Henry Dandolo reaching the age of 97*; Cardinal Fleury, 90; Bolingbroke, 79; Alberoni, 80; Pombal, 83 years.

In our own times we are familiar with the venerable aspect and antique manners of Talleyrand, Metternich, and Nesselrode-statesmen who have played so various a part amid the changes of dynasties and the conflicts of empires. And, again, among the greatest men of our own country, less exposed indeed to revolutionary storms, we find the names of many who, happily for this nation, have continued the eminent labours and services of earlier life into a prolonged age of honour and usefulness. Of the Duke of Wellington it was truly said on the morrow of his death, that he had exhausted nature as he had exhausted glory: and to the same illustrious generation belong the names of Lyndhurst, Brougham, and Lansdowne, all still maintaining, under what is weight of years alone, the vigour, eloquence, and ability which have marked every stage of their career. But, after all, such instances interpret only individualities of temperament, and afford no answer to the general question. The same is true in the case of literary and scientific men. We might quote the examples of Hobbes, Voltaire, Fontenelle, Heyne, Göthe, Newton, Kepler, Halley, Cassini, Maria-Agnesi, and others all reaching ages between 80 and 100; or the living fame of Humboldt, still eminent, at 87, in every

*But,' says Gibbon, in recording the fact, this extraordinary longevity is not observed by the original writers, nor does there exist another example of a hero near one hundred years of age. Theophrastus might afford an instance of a writer of ninety-nine. It is scarcely possible that the powers of the mind and body should support themselves to such a period of life.' (Decline and Fall, cap. LX.)