the Cybele of the Chinese. He remarks that she is also called Lotus-eyed, and born of the lotus flower. Kuân-yin, then, he concludes, is the Lakshmi of the Indians. Rémusat, with apparent reason, combats this notion, and gives his own explanation in the following terms:-The supreme intelligence (Budha) having by his thought (Dharma) produced union or multiplicity (Sanga), from the existence of this Triad arose five abstractions or intelligences of the first order, that is, Budhas, each of which produced an intelligence of the second order, Bhodisatua.2 It is from this name that the Chinese have, by abbreviation, formed that of Poo-sa, common not only to these five secondary intelligences, but to all the souls which have attained the same degree of elevation. Kuan-she-yin, or Kuân-yin, is placed in the first rank; but Padmanetra, (Lotus-eyed) is the name of another divinity of the same kind. The Sanscrit name of the former (Kuân-yin) is Padma-pâni, who represents, on account of her productive power, the second term of the Triad, and in the exterior doctrine is characterized by several signs of a female divinity. It is certain that no idol in China is more honoured than Kuân-yin.3

In the name of Poo-ta-la, a temple, or rather monastery, described in Lord Macartney's mission, may be recognised the Chinese pronunciation of Budha. This extensive establishment, which was found in Manchow Tartary beyond the Great Wall, is described as a quadrangular structure of considerable height, each of its sides measuring two hundred feet, and the whole building affording shelter to no less than eight hundred priests or lamas. In the square court or quadrangle within is a gilded chapel, with representations of the Triad, and the whole description assimilates it, though on the largest scale, to the monasteries in Nipal, as they are described

1 Observations, p. 51.

2" Poo-te-să-to, an Indian word introduced with the Budha sect; now, according to the Genius of the Chinese language, contracted to Poo-sa."-Morrison's Chinese Dictionary, Part II., p. 682.

3 M. Rémusat observes very truly that Chinese Budhism can only be duly investigated by comparing the Chinese versions with the Sanscrit texts, and thus combining two departments of learning which have not as yet been united in the same person. 4 Staunton, vol. ii. p. 258.

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by Mr. Hodgson. "The vihar is built round a large quadrangle or open square, two stories high; the architecture is Chinese. Chaitya properly means a temple of Budha, and vihar an abode of his cœnobitical followers. In the open square in the midst of every vihar is placed a chaitya: but those words always bear the senses here attached to them, and vihar can never be construed temple; it is a convent or monastery, or religious house." Pootala, then, is a vihar, with a chaitya within the quadrangle.

The Chinese pronunciation of Budha seems also apparent in the name Poo-to, applied to an island of the Chusan group, in latitude 30o 3', and longitude 121°, where Mr. Gutzlaff5 visited one of the largest establishments dedicated to Fo and his priests; a place of such note as to be the resort of numerous votaries from remote parts. "At a distance (says he) the island appeared barren and scarcely habitable; but as we approached it we observed very prominent buildings and large glittering roofs. A temple, built on a projecting rock, beneath which the foaming sea dashed, gave us some idea of the genius of its inhabitants in thus selecting the most attractive spot to celebrate the orgies of idolatry. We were quite engaged in viewing a large building situated in a grove, where we observed some priests of Budha walking along the shore, attracted by the novel sight of a ship. Scarcely had we landed when another party of priests in common garbs and very filthy, hastened down to us chanting hymns. When some books were offered them, they exclaimed, 'Praise be to Budha,' and eagerly took every volume that I had. We then ascended to a large temple, surrounded by trees and bamboos. An elegant portal and magnificent gate brought us into a spacious court, which was surrounded with a long range of buildings not unlike barracks, being the dwellings of the priests. On entering it, the huge images of Budha and his disciples, the representations of Kuân-yin, the goddess of mercy, and other idols, with the spacious and well-adorned halls, exhibit an imposing sight to the foreign spectator.

5 Journal of a Voyage along the Coast of China 1832-33.

The high-priest requested an interview. He was a deaf old man, who seemed to have very little authority, and his remarks were common-place enough. We afterwards followed a paved road, discovering several other smaller temples, till we came to some large rocks, on which we found several inscriptions hewn in very large letters. One of them stated that China has sages. The excavations were filled with small gilt idols and superscriptions. On a sudden we came in sight of a still larger temple, with yellow tiles, by which we immediately recognised it as an

imperial endowment. A bridge, very tastefully built over an artificial tank, led to an extensive area paved with quarried stones. Though the same architecture reigned in the structure of this larger building as in the others, we could distinguish a superior taste and a higher finish. The idols were the same,

but their votaries were far more numerous: indeed this is the largest temple I have ever seen. The halls, being arrayed with all the tinsel of idolatry, presented numerous specimens of Chinese art.

The colossal images were made of clay,

and tolerably well gilt. There were great drums and cylindrical bells in the temple. We were present at the vespers of the priests, which they chanted in the Pâli language, not unlike the Latin service of the Romish church. They held their rosaries in their hands, which rested folded upon their breasts. One of them had a small bell, by the tinkling of which their service was regulated; and they occasionally beat the drum and large bell to rouse Budha's attention to their prayers.

1 This is a common practice of visitors, who employ artists to cut these gigantic letters very deep into the face of the rocks. The embassy of 1816 met with them near the Poyang lake.

The same words were a hundred times repeated. None of the officiating persons showed any interest in the ceremony, for some were looking around, laughing and joking, while others muttered their prayers. The few people who were present, not to attend the worship, but to gaze at us, did not seem in the least degree to feel the solemnity of the ser vice. Though the government sometimes decries Budhism as a dangerous doctrine, we saw papers stuck up, wherein the people were exhorted to repair to these temples in order to induce Heaven to grant a fertile spring; and these exhortations were issued by the Emperor himself. What inconsistency!

On the island are two large and sixty

small temples, which are all built in the same style; and the idol of Kuân-yin holds a prominent station. We were told that upon this spot, not exceeding twelve square miles, 2000 priests were living. No females are allowed to live on the island, nor any layman suffered to reside there, except in the service of the priests. To maintain this numerous train of idlers, lands on the opposite island have been allotted for their use, which they farm out; but, as this is still inadequate, they go upon begging expeditions, not only into the surrounding provinces, but

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even as far as Siam. From its being a place of pilgrimage, also, the priests derive great profits. To every person who visits this island it appears at first like a fairy land, so romantic is everything that meets the eye. Those large inscriptions hewn in solid granite; the many temples that appear in every direction; the highly picturesque scenery itself, with its many peaked, riven, and detached rocks; and, above all, a stately mausoleum, the largest which I have ever seen, containing the bones and ashes of thousands of priests, quite bewilder the imagination."

THE third religious or philosophic persuasion that has established itself in China is that of Taou, or of Laou-keun, which was the name, or rather title, of the founder. This person appeared nearly simultaneously with Confucius, by whom he is mentioned about 560 years before the Christian era. As far as can be gathered of the real drift of his doctrines, he seems to have inculcated a contempt of riches and honours, and all worldly distinctions, and to have aimed like Epicurus, at subduing every passion that could interfere with personal tranquillity and self-enjoyment. As death, however, was something that they could not pretend to despise, his disciples and successors set themselves to work to invent an elixir of long life, or of immortality, and thus became in time a species of alchymist. They have been alternately favoured and persecuted at different periods of Chinese history, but seem to have flourished most under the Soong dynasty, subsequent to the tenth century of our era, a period when all speculative opinions, and every species of spurious learning, were most in vogue.

The principal commentator on the works of Confucius speaks of Laou-keun, or, as he

is sometimes styled, Laou-tsze,1 with little respect, and calls him "an ignorant good man. He is there described as a recluse, who was distinguished by his humility, uprightness, simplicity of life, and exemption from cares and passions. He taught and practised a weak inactivity and neglect of the world and its concerns, loving neither fame, nor pleasure, nor business. It is reasonable to suppose that the principal fabric of that doctrine which now distinguishes the professors of the Taou sect, was the work of those who succeeded Laou-keun, and made use of his name as the foundation of their system. They call him "the original ancestor, or founder honoured of heaven;" and the account given of him in popular books is, that he was an incarnation of some superior being, and that there is no age in which he does not come forth among men in human shape. They tell the various names under which he appeared from the highest period of fabulous antiquity down as late as the sixth century, making in all seven periods.2

In imitation, perhaps, of the Budhist Triad, the followers of Taou have also their own Triad, which they denominate "the Three This threefold source and pure ones." supreme ruler is represented as presiding in heaven among the assembled gods, the sun, moon, stars, and constellations, and delivering his name, accompanied by many epithets of benevolence and mercy, to the great bare-footed angel," to be promulged in the lower world, that amongst men, all who see and recite that name may attain infinite happiness and complete deliverance from all evil. Their principal scripture is the Taou-te-king, a Latin version of which exists in the library of the Royal Society.

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Besides the practice of alchymy, to which they were led in their search of the elixir of long life, the disciples of Laou-keun have at different times professed the science of magic, and their arts of imposition were, at various periods of Chinese history, practised upon the Sovereigns of the country. Under the Tâng dynasty this superstition gained such credit that the title of Tien-sze, "Celestial doctors or teachers," was conferred on its professors: a superb temple was erected to Laou-keun, and his image placed in it. It is said that the representatives of the head of the sect have still a large establishment in the province of Keang-sy, where numbers flock from all parts to obtain cures for diseases or to learn their destinies. The sect appears, in fact, to have degenerated very much from the character and tenets of the original founder, and many who wear the garb of the Taou-sze are at present little better than cheats and jugglers, professing to have communication with demons. The chief point of distinction in garb between them and the rest of the Chinese, is the mode in which they dress their hair, which is fastened at the top of the head by means of a pin or skewer, somewhat after the fashion of the people of Loo-choo. It is by many degrees the least popular or predominant sect of China; its superstitions now engage only a few of the most ignorant, and the Taou-sze are but rarely seen.

In proof of the puerile nature of the superstitions which have occupied this sect, we may produce an extract from an original Chinese work, the history of the "Three

States," in which are detailed the legends relating to the three brothers Chang, who professed the doctrines of the Taou sect, and at the head of an insurrection of rebels, called "Yellow caps," produced those troubles which ended in the ruin of the Hân dynasty. "Lewpei took occasion to steal upon Chang-paou with his whole force, to baffle which the latter mounted his horse, and, with dishevelled hair and waving sword, betook himself to magic arts. The wind arose with loud peals of thunder, and there descended from on high a black cloud, in which appeared innumerable men and horses as if engaged. Lew-pei immediately drew off his troops in confusion, and, giving up the contest, retreated to consult with Choo-tsien. The latter observed, 'Let him have recourse again to magic; I will prepare the blood of swine, sheep, and dogs, and, placing a party on the heights in ambush, wait until the enemy approaches when his magic will be all dispersed by projecting the same upon him.' Lew-pei assented to this, and directed two of his leaders, each with a thousand men, to ascend the highest part of the mountain, supplied with the blood of swine, sheep, and dogs, and other impure things.

"On the following day, Chang-paou, with flags displayed and drums beating, came to offer battle, and Lew-pei proceeded to meet him; but scarcely had they joined before Chang-paou put his magic in exercise; the wind and thunder arose, and a storm of sand and stones commenced. A dark cloud obscured the sky, and troops of horsemen seemed to descend. Lew-pei upon this made a show of retreating, and Chang-paou followed him; but scarcely had they turned the hill when the ambushed troops started up and launched upon the enemy their impure stores. The air seemed immediately filled with men and horses of paper or straw, which fell to the earth in confusion; while the winds and thunder at once ceased, and the sand and stones no longer flew about. When Chang-paou saw his magic thus baffled, he would have retreated at once, but Lew-pei's two leaders made their appearance on either side, while himself and his lieutenant pursued in the rear. The rebels were defeated with great slaughter. Lew-pei, on seeing the

flag inscribed Lord of Earth,' ran full speed on his horse towards Chang-paou, who took to flight, and in his retreat was wounded in the left arm with an arrow discharged at him by his enemy."

In regard to the word Taou, Reason, which serves as the denomination of the sect under consideration, and with reference to which they style themselves "doctors of reason," it would seem that the ancient term philosopher in use among ourselves had very much the same origin. Some persons have spent much time in discussing the mysterious and recondite meanings which in Chinese metaphysics have been attached to the words Taou and Ly; but it would be useless to enter upon such a discussion in a work like the present, and we shall content ourselves with the popular meaning of those terms in connexion with each other, which is simply reason. One of the missionaries of the Romish church supposed that Taou corresponded to the Greek Loyos; but it has been objected to this, with some truth, that what several of the Chinese books affirm of Taou being the original source and first productive cause of all things, does not so well comport with the definition of the Logos, given in the philosophical systems which have adopted that term, and where it has been considered not as the first cause, but rather the first emanation from the Deity.

Laou-keun had four principal disciples, the chief of whom was Chuang-tsze, concerning whom the Chinese possess an agreeable tale, which has been translated into French by Père Dentrecolles. It may be a relief to the dry dulness of Chinese philosophy, and at the same time illustrative of this sect, if we give an abstract of the story, which is the more particularly deserving of notice, as it has supplied ample materials for the Zadig of Voltaire. The whole, it will easily be perceived, is a satire on the female sex and on marriage, and might perhaps be meant as an indirect dissuasive against that state. The story commences with an enunciation of the principles of the Chinese Epicurus. "Riches, and the advantages which they bring, are but a short and agreeable dream: honours and reputation resemble a brilliant cloud, which soon vanishes. The affection of those united

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by blood and other ties is commonly but a vain appearance; the most tender friendships may convert themselves into the bitterest strifes. Let us not wear a yoke because it is of gold; nor bear the burden of chains because they consist of jewels. Let us purify our minds, moderate our desires, and detach ourselves from worldly affections: let us, above all things, preserve ourselves in a state of liberty and joy, which is independent of others."

Chuâng-tsze, the story proceeds to say, having married a young and beautiful wife, retired to his native country of Soong, the present Shantong, to lead the life of a philosopher. He declined the offer of the Sovereign of a neighbouring state, who had been led by the fame of his wisdom to seek his services as minister, with the following apologue:-" A heifer, prepared for sacrifice with high and luxurious feeding, marched in state, arrayed in all the ornaments with which victims are adorned. In the midst of her triumph she perceived some oxen at the plough, and her pride was redoubled. But when, on entering the temple, the victim saw the knife raised in readiness for her immolation, she would gladly have exchanged lots with those whose condition had only just before been despised as inferior to her own."

One day as Chuâng-tsze was walking, immersed in thought, at the foot of a neighbouring mountain, he on a sudden found himself among a multitude of tombs; and being struck with the vast number of them, "Alas," exclaimed he, "here then all are equal: here there is neither rank nor distinction, but the most ignorant and stupid of men is confounded with the sage himself. The sepulchre is at last the eternal abode of all, and when we have once taken up our place in the habitations of the dead, there is no possibility of return.' After spending some time in these gloomy reflections, he proceeded along the tombs, and soon found himself near a newly-constructed sepulchre. The hillock of tempered earth was not yet entirely dry. On one side of the tomb sat a young woman in deep mourning, holding in her hand a large white fan, with which she con

1 i. e. In a long white cotton garment without a

seam.