this when, in 1832, they denied that their President was any other than a Company's representative; indeed, it was very correctly observed in Parliament, with reference to this proceeding of the Court, that the complete powers with which the Legislature had vested the Chief in China over all British subjects seemed alone to give him a national character.

From the beginning of the century until 1727, many very severe grievances were suffered at Canton, and, although the trade continued to proceed, it was with frequent interruptions. In that year we find that an exemption was demanded by the English from various extortions; among others, a total charge of 16 per cent. on the trade; heavy taxes on the compradors, or purveyors for supplying the ships; and what was called the present of 1950 taëls, in addition to the measurage, or port fee. For some time the local government had attempted to invest a single individual, called "the Emperor's merchant," with the exclusive right of conducting the European commerce.

This

monster in trade," however, (as he is very properly termed on the records,) was soon obliged to allow others to participate. The Hong merchants then endeavoured to establish a hong, or united firm, among themselves. The supercargoes upon this declined trading until the combination was dissolved, and a representation to the Viceroy was at length successful in removing it. On their declaring, moreover, that they should be obliged to proceed to Amoy, or some other port, unless the heavy charges on their trade were remitted, the Hoppo promised them redress. Notwithstanding this, in the following year of 1728, an additional duty of 10 per cent. was laid on all exports to Europe, and the remonstrances of the English merchants proved unavailing.

From what appears to have transpired relative to this 10 per cent. duty, it seems clear that raw produce has, from the very first, found a better market at Canton than manufactures. It is observed on the records, "a duty of 10 per cent. hath really been paid by the merchants to the Hoppo on all goods sold to the Europe ships for some years past, though, at the same time, the country 1

1 Those from India.

ships remain free. At length one of the merchants gave this reason, which they hold as a very just one, that the Hoppo, for several years past, observing that a considerable duty arose to the Emperor upon goods imported by the country ships, (the raw produce of India and the Straits,) and that the Europe ships brought few or none, he fixed that rate upon the merchants for all goods sold by them to the Europe ships." The great industry and ingenuity of the Chinese causes them to turn nearly all raw produce to good account; while the peculiarities of their national customs and tastes, added to the obstacles of both law and prejudice against European productions of art, render these far less acceptable in general.

In 1734 only one ship, the Harrison, was sent to Canton, simply on account of the high duties and extortions. An attempt, however, was made at Amoy, in the ship Grafton. The history of the negotiations at that place affords a notable specimen of Chinese rapacity and faithlessness. After spending months in the fruitless endeavour to obtain reasonable terms from the mandarins, they were compelled at length to take their departure for Canton, principally because they could not get liberty to trade with any persons but those who were leagued with the mandarins, one of whom was always stationed over them in the house they had rented on shore. In addition to the regular duties, which were very high, there was an extra charge of 20 per cent. for the Hoppo. "The ignorance of the Amoy merchants, (it is observed,) and the little encouragement they gave us, makes us almost despair of doing any business at that place." In 1736 the ship Normanton proceeded to Ningpo, and strenuous efforts were made to open a trade there, unfettered by the oppressions they had suffered formerly in the neighbouring island of Chusan; but they found the mandarins very imperious and obstinate, insisting, as a necessary preliminary, on the surrender of their arms and ammunition. There moreover appeared few inducements to trade; for the record observes, "it seems rather to have been, than to be, a place of great commerce." It is probable that this, with other parts of China, had suffered by the Tartar

invasion. After wasting nearly two months in fruitless attempts to procure a fair trade, the Normanton sailed for Canton: on arriving there it was found that the Emperor Kien-loong, who had just succeeded to the throne, had remitted the duty of 10 per cent., as well as the present of 1,510 taëls, leaving that portion of the port-charges only which is called the measurage. When the edict ordering this remission was to be read in the Imperial Hall of Audience, the Hong merchants informed the different European traders "that they must prostrate themselves, kneeling on both their knees." "Suspecting that the merchants endeavoured to make us believe this, in order that by our compliance we might be brought down to the same servile level with themselves; considering, also, that the posture insisted on is such a mark of abject submission as we never pay to our own sovereigns in Europe, we unanimously agreed that we should dishonour ourselves and our countries in complying with it. Being apprehensive that they (the Hong merchants) might succeed in their design of weakening us, by creating in us mutual suspicions and jealousies, we met in a body, and, by unanimous agreement, gave our solemn words of honour that none of us would submit to the slavish posture required, nor make any concession or proposal of accommodation separately, without first acquainting all the rest." It was fortunate for them that they never prostrated themselves, for more substantial concessions would very soon have been demanded, had they gone through this form of allegiance and fealty. It seems that in that year (just a century since) the total number of European ships at Canton was ten, viz., four English, two French, two Dutch, one Dane, and one Swede.

At the close of 1741 his Majesty's ship Centurion, under the command of Commodore Anson, arrived off Macao, in the prosecution of her voyage round the world, being the first British man-of-war that visited China. The interesting details of that ship's stay are well given in the popular history of the voyage, and familiar to most readers. After

Notwithstanding this, the provincial government contrived to exact the present to its full amount until 1829, when a trifling reduction was made in it.

being hove down and repaired, the Centurion put to sea, and succeeded in capturing the Acapulco ship, with its valuable freight of treasure, with which she proceeded again to the Canton river, being in want of provisions. The Commodore on his arrival was subjected, as usual, to numberless vexatious delays; and the following passages occur on the manuscript proceedings::-"A new difficulty was now started, that Mr. Anson, being lodged at Mr. Townsend's, must first go to Macao; for, if he remained in the house after Mr. Townsend left it, the Hong merchants said they should of course become security for him to the mandarins; and should Mr. Anson take a Spanish ship near Macao, on the coast, they would then be made answerable for the damages, and perhaps lose their heads. Mr. Anson declared he did not want any person to be security for him, but told them that unless he got some provisions he would not stir out of Canton, for he had not five days' bread on board his ship... We assembled the merchants the third time, to persuade them, if possible, to prevail with the mandarins to grant Mr. Anson a general chop for all the necessaries he wants. They informed us, the mandarins had such a strange notion of a ship which went about the world seeking other ships in order to take them, that they could not be brought to hear reason on that head." At length the merchants became so uneasy at the Commodore's stay in Canton, that they suffered a purveyor to ship the provisions without the inspection of the custom-house.

The loss of the Acapulco ship led the Spaniards, in 1744 to fit out several vessels for the annoyance of our China trade; and when the Hardwicke East Indiaman arrived off the coast, a note was delivered, by means of a Chinese boat, to say that three Spanish ships were lying off Macao to intercept her: the Hardwicke accordingly sailed away for Amoy. There, however, the mandarins insisted on the ship's proceeding into the inner harbour without any previous conditions, as well as delivering up all arms and ammunition. The merchants showed no disposition to trade, and, in fact, there seemed little to trade with. Accordingly, after fifteen days

of ineffectual trial, the ship was compelled to proceed to India against the monsoon, without a single article of cargo! Nor was the condition of the trade much better at Canton. The extortions increased in spite of all attempts at representation on the part of the supercargoes. The Hong merchants used every endeavour and at length succeeded in preventing the access of Europeans to the officers of government, finding that by that means they could exercise their impositions on both with the greater success and impunity. To the foreigners they alleged, that the mandarins were the authors of all the exactions on the trade; to the mandarins, that the foreigners were of so barbarous and fierce a temper, as to be incapable of listening to reason. The records observe, that, "ever since they carried their point of preventing all

intercourse between the Europeans and mandarins, they have imposed upon both in their turns, and put the trade of this place upon such a footing as without redress would render it impracticable to Europeans." In these difficult times it was that Mr. Flint, a person of uncommon talents and merit, contrived to master the difficulties of the Chinese language; but the ungrateful return which his energy and exertions in their service met with from his employers was such, as tended, in all probability more than any other cause, to discourage his successors from undertaking so laborious, unprofitable, and even hazardous a task. We find Mr. Flint acting as interpreter in 1747, and he soon had to perform a very prominent part in China, as will appear hereafter.

The grievances suffered by our trade led

to a remonstrance, in which the principal points were, the delay in unloading the ships; the plunder of goods on the river; injurious affiches annually put up by the government, accusing the foreigners of horrible crimes, and intended to expose them to the contempt of the populace; the extortions, under false pretexts, of the inferior officers; and the difficulty of access to the mandarins. The ships were detained outside in 1754, until the Viceroy had promised to attend to these various complaints: but little was ultimately gained. It is to be apprehended that the want of union among the Europeans had, as usual, the effect of frustrating their attempts at redress. "Some gentlemen," it is observed, 66 were of opinion that we ought to make a stand; and as by arguing the case, we seemed to be the farther from a determination, we parted without any resolve, except that every man would do as he liked best." This certainly was not the way to succeed with the Chinese. The animosities which prevailed between the English and French were productive of much trouble to both; and to such a height did the disorders arrive at Whampoa, between the crews of the different nations on shore, that an English sailor was at length shot by some of the French officers, and another taken prisoner; which was immediately followed by a letter addressed to the English supercargoes from "Le Conseil de direction de Canton, representant la nation Française a la Chine." The Chinese magistrate held an inquest at Whampoa, and desired the French, in the first place, to give up their prisoner, which they did, alleging, however, that the English had commenced the disturbance, by attacking their people. As the Frenchman fired a musket, of which he had deliberately gone in quest, it was plainly nothing better than a murder; and the English sailors were so exasperated, that there seemed to be no way of preventing their doing themselves justice, but to demand justice from the Chinese government. The Viceroy stopped the trade until they should give up the criminal; and somebody was at length seized by the Chinese and taken into the city, confessing himself the guilty person. He was liberated the following year by order of the

emperor, on occasion of a general act of grace; and, as a means of preventing further disturbances at Whampoa, Dane's Island was allotted to the English, and French Island to the French sailors, for their recreation.

In 1755 Messrs. Harrison and Flint were despatched to Ningpo, with the view of reestablishing a trade there if possible. On their arrival, they were well received, and the charges and customs appeared considerably lower than at Canton. The Fooyuen, or deputy-governor, was so desirous of giving them encouragement, that he conceded almost all the articles in their memorial: in so doing, however, he appeared to have exceeded his power; for when the ship Holdernesse subsequently proceeded to Ningpo to take advantage of this apparent opening, the Viceroy, who was then in the province, sent an order for all the great guns, small arms, and ammunition to be taken out of the ship, and the same duties to be paid as at Canton. Though the Fooyuen could not act directly against this order, he did not comply with it, but sent it straight up to Peking, with an account of what he had done, thereby putting it out of the Viceroy's power, as well as his own, to make an absolute decision in the interim. As it would have been the end of September before an answer could possibly arrive from Peking, the mandarins agreed to begin business, provided that half the guns and ammunition were delivered. Twelve great guns were accordingly given up, and the ships unloaded: the Holdernesse, however, paid to the mandarins 2,000 taëls, and the other charges and duties proved double those at Canton, while no residence was allowed on shore. The objection made by the government to a trade at Ningpo was "the loss of revenue to the emperor, accruing from overland carriage of tea and other goods to Canton;" the very circumstance of course, which enhanced the prices of those goods to the European purchaser. On their departure from Ningpo, the supercargoes were formally acquainted by the mandarins of all future trade being forbidden them at that port; and, on reaching Macao, the officers of the local government in like manner informed them of a public edict, confining the commerce to Canton.

At length, in 1759, the factory once occupied by the English at Ningpo was destroyed, the merchants with whom they had dealt ordered to quit the place, and the war-junks directed to prevent any English ship from being supplied with provisions at Chusan. Mr. Flint, notwithstanding this, proceeded to Ningpo, upon which the Canton government forbade his return, desiring that he should be sent home to England whenever he re-appeared. On arriving at Ningpo he was refused all communication: upon this he proceeded to the neighbourhood of Peking, and succeeded in making his complaints known to the emperor. A man

darin of rank was appointed to proceed with him by land to Canton, and there, in concert with others, to sit in judgment on the Hoppo. Mr. Flint, on reaching Canton, remained ten days in the city, and then proceeded to the factory. Two days after, the foreigners of all nations were received by the Chinese commissioners, and informed that the Hoppo had been degraded, his place being supplied by another. All impositions, moreover, were remitted, except 6 per cent. on goods, and the present of 1,950 taëls from each ship.

It proved, however, that these fair appearances were destined only to be the prelude to a storm. Some days afterwards, the Viceroy desired to see Mr. Flint, for the purpose of communicating the emperor's orders: the council wished to accompany him, and their request was granted. When the party had reached the Viceroy's palace, the Hong merchants proposed their going in one at a time, but they insisted on proceeding together; and on Mr. Flint being called for, they were received by a mandarin at the first gate, proceeding onward through two courts with seeming complaisance from the officers in waiting but, on arriving at the gate of the inner court, they were hurried, and even forced into the Viceroy's presence, and (under pretence of doing homage after the Chinese fashion) a struggle ensued with their barbarian conductors, in which they were at length, by dint of numbers, thrown down. The Viceroy, seeing their determined resolution not to submit to these base humiliations, ordered the people to desist; and then telling

a

Mr. Flint to advance, he pointed to an order, which he called the emperor's edict, for his banishment to Macao, and subsequent departure for England. This he declared was on account of his endeavouring to open trade at Ningpo, contrary to orders from Peking; he added, that the man who had written the Chinese petition was to be beheaded that day, for traitorously encouraging foreigners, "which execution," the record observes, 66 was performed on a man quite innocent of what these absolute and villanous mandarins were pleased to call a crime." At the same time, the complaints against the Hoppo were admitted to have been just. Mr. Flint was detained in the city, and conveyed to a place called Tsienshan, or Casa Branca, near Macao, where he was imprisoned, but pretty well treated, though all correspondence was cut off.

Some days after the above occurrence, the French, Danes, Swedes, and Dutch met in a body at the English factory, and jointly entered a protest against the act of the Viceroy: but Mr. Flint remained in prison from March, 1760, to November, 1762, when he was carried by the Chinese to Whampoa, and put on board the ship Horsendon, to be conveyed to England.

The success and impunity of the Canton government on this occasion seems to have encouraged it in its assumptions for some time after. When, in March, 1765, his Majesty's ship Argo arrived, convoying the Cuddalore schooner, with a supply of half a million of dollars for the Company's treasury, the Chinese insisted on searching the schooner, on the plea that a woman was on board: but when this was declined, as contrary to all precedent, they said it would be sufficient if a mandarin were admitted" to walk two or three times up and down the deck." They were told that when a licence had been granted for taking out the silver, they might send whom they pleased to walk up and down the deck. visions were denied to the Argo in consequence of this dispute, and it was at length arranged that a mandarin should go on board when the money was unladen. The Chinese next demanded to measure his Majesty's ship Argo, but this was refused by Captain Affleck, more especially as there was a precedent against so

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