book: that is the only one that I haven't read,' the reader will be able to identify the first that as a demonstrative adjective limiting the noun book; the second that as a demonstrative pronoun; and the third that as a relative. It is true that the substitution of which for the second that would still make sense, and the application of the first of our two tests might therefore lead to the mistaken description of this word as a relative. But this error will be corrected by the use of the second test which shows that this can replace that. The difficulty of identifying that is increased by the fact that it is also a conjunction. If we meet with that in a context where who, whom, and this, will none of them make sense as its substitute, the word must be a conjunction. The reader can experiment upon the sentences 'He said that you were here,' 'I work that I may live.'

129. V. The following are both Relative and Interrogative Pronouns.

Who is used only as a noun: we cannot say who man. It has three cases, who, whom, whose, in singular and plural. What is the neuter of who and can be used both as noun and adjective What is used as an Interrogative in 'What did he say?' Here it has the force of a noun. 'What remark did he make?' Here it is adjectival. It is used as a Relative in 'What they took they kept.' Here it has the force of a noun. 'What towns they took they

kept.' Here it is adjectival.

What is not declined. neuter, but as an interrogative adjective it can be used with names of persons: 'What man, what woman, what child would believe this statement?'

When used as a noun it is

Which is equivalent to why + like (i.e. 'in what way like'), as such is to so+like. It can be used as noun or adjective, both as Interrogative and as Relative. 'Which will you

have?' 'Which book will you have?' 'Take which you please,' 'Take which book you please.'

There is a slight difference in our use of which and of who or what as interrogatives. Which implies that the choice is restricted to a known group of things. Thus we say 'What shall we have for dinner?' when the selection is unlimited, but 'There's only turbot or salmon to-day; which Ishall we have?' as the selection is to be made from a definite number.

Which as a Relative pronoun is no longer used of persons, though it was so used formerly: e.g. 'Our Father, which art in heaven.'

From who, what, which, we have formed compound relatives whosoever, whichsoever, whatsoever. Whosoever is declined as follows:

Nom. whosoever, Obj. whomsoever, Possess. whosesoever.

130. The differences in our use of that and of who or which as relative pronouns must be carefully noted. (1) That is used of persons and things, whilst who is used of persons only and which of things.

(2) That cannot follow a preposition: if that is used as the relative, the preposition is tacked on at the end of the sentence. Thus 'The man in whom I trusted' becomes 'The man that I trusted in;' 'The house of which you told me' becomes 'The house that you told me of;' 'The means by which he did it' becomes 'The means that he did it by.'

(3) That has a restrictive force which renders it unsuitable sometimes as the substitute for who or which. I can say 'My sister that is abroad is ill,' because I may have several sisters, and the clause introduced by that limits the application of the noun to one of the number. But I cannot say 'My mother that is abroad is ill,' because the restrictive that would suggest that I have more mothers

than one, which is absurd. I must say 'My mother who is abroad,' which signifies 'My mother, and she is abroad,' the word who having a coordinating force in uniting two coordinate statements, 'My mother is ill,' 'My mother is abroad.'

131. As and But occur with the force of Relative Pronouns.

As is the correlative of same and such: 'Mine is not the same as yours,' 'His behaviour is not such as will secure for him many friends.' We still hear as used for whom or that in rural districts: 'The man as I saw,' 'The man as told me.' These are vulgarisms now, but they were good English once.

pronouns.

As is entitled to a place among the relative

But has the force of a relative pronoun in certain negative constructions. Thus in 'There is nobody but thinks you mad,' 'but thinks' means 'who does not think:' in 'Who is there but hopes for happiness?' 'but hopes' means 'who does not hope.' We are not however to call but a relative pronoun here, though it serves as the substitute for one: it is a conjunction, and there is an ellipsis of a pronoun which should follow it: 'There is nobody but he thinks you mad,'' Who is there but he hopes for happiness?'

132. VI. Indefinite Pronouns.

One is an indefinite pronoun: it is used vaguely, referring not to any particular individual, but to persons or things generally: One hears strange rumours of a rupture in the party.' It has a possessive case, one's: 'One must be sure of one's ground.' Two views have been held respecting the origin of this word: (1) that it is simply the cardinal numeral, used as a pronoun; this is probably the right view: (2) that it is from French on, as in ‘on dit,' 'one says,' where on = homme = Latin homo, 'man,' just as in German we have the equivalent expression 'man sagt.' One has the meaning 'a certain' in such expressions as 'one Simon a tanner.'

Any contains the numeral one in its root an.

Aught contains the word whit,-preserved in our expressions 'not one whit,' 'not a whit,'-meaning 'thing.'

W. E. G.

9

Naught or nought is ná-wiht, 'no whit': of nought the adverb not is merely a shortened form.

133. VII. Distributive Pronouns.

Each represents 'aye-like,' i.e. all alike. It can be used both as noun and as adjective: 'Give one to each,' 'Give one to each boy.'

Every is a corruption of 'ever-each,' and is used only when more than two are referred to. It is not employed in modern English as a noun, but must always be followed by a noun.

Either contains as its elements 'aye-whether': in its constituent part whether, the suffix -ther marks duality or comparison, as in other, further. Either means 'one of two,' but sometimes occurs with the meaning 'each of two;' e.g. 'on either side of the river was there the tree of life.' (Rev. xxii. 2). Its negative is neither.

Each other and one another are used after a transitive verb to express reciprocity of the action. When we say 'They hate each other,' we mean that the feeling is mutual. Each other is used of two agents and objects, one another of more than two. The construction of the two parts of these compound expressions is different: each and one stand for the agents or subjects, other and another for the objects; thus

"They hate each (subject) the other (object),'

'They hate one (subject) another (object),'

each and one being in apposition with the subject they. But the grammatical relation of these Reciprocal Pronouns has been lost sight of in common use. If we still recognised their original construction, we should say 'They gave a present each to the other,' or 'one to another,' instead of saying, as we do, 'They gave a present to each other,' or "They gave presents to one another.'

134. VIII. Possessives.

The forms my, thy, its, were dealt with when we discussed the pronouns of the First, Second, and Third Persons. Mine and thine contain a genitive inflexion n: this ʼn has been dropped in my and thy, which are shortened forms of mine and thine, just as a is a shortened form of an. The r in our, your, their, is a genitive plural inflexion.

Our, your, their, her, give rise to secondary forms ours, yours, theirs, hers, containing s which was originally an inflexion of the genitive singular only. They are thus double genitive forms, just as brethren is a double plural, nearer a double comparative, and inmost a double superlative.

It has already been pointed out that in modern speech we employ the Possessives belonging to the two groups with this difference:

We use my, thy, her, its, our, your, their, if a noun immediately follows them :

We use mine, thine, hers, ours, yours, theirs, if the noun which they limit does not follow them:

His is used in both ways, but its only when followed by

a noun.

Thus we say 'Give me my book and take yours,' not 'Give me mine book and take your.' But we say 'This is his book' and 'This book is his.'

In the diction of poetry, mine and thine occur with nouns following them, if the nouns begin with a vowelsound: 'mine eye,' 'mine ear,' 'thine honour.'

135. Before leaving the subject of Pronouns, the reader should notice how inflexions, which have disappeared from nouns and adjectives, have survived in words belonging to this part of speech. Hi-m preserves the form of the dative singular, the-m the form of the dative plural; the in our, your, her, is a sign of the genitive; the t in it, what, that, marks the neuter gender.