208. The subordinating conjunctions by which adverbial clauses are introduced may be classified according to the various modes of dependence which they indicate, as— 1. Introductory or Appositional-that.

2.

Conditional-if, unless.

3. Concessive-though.

4. Temporal-after, till, while, as.

5. Consecutive, marking Result-that ('so that').
6. Final, marking Purpose-that (in order that'),
lest.

7. Causal-because, since, as.

8. Comparative—than, as.

209. Conjunctions have grown out of other parts of speech.

The conjunction that was originally the neuter demonstrative pronoun. "I know that you did it' represents 'You did it: I know that,' the order of the clauses being reversed. Both, used with and, is the same word as the adjective; either, used with or, is the same word as the distributive pronoun. Than, though, while, were once adverbs. Before, after, since, were once prepositions and were followed by 'that.' To distinguish Conjunctions from Prepositions is easy: Conjunctions never govern a case. To distinguish Conjunctions from Adverbs is often difficult, and our remarks on the distinction shall be reserved till we are dealing with the Syntax of Adverbs and Conjunctions. (See p. 255.)

210. Conjunctions which occur in pairs are called Correlatives: both...and, either...or, so...as, so...that, as...so, whether...or, are examples of Correlative Conjunctions.

An Interjection is a sound which expresses an emotion but does not enter into the construction of the sentence.

As Interjections have no connexion with the grammatical structure of the sentence, their claim to recognition among the Parts of Speech is a small one. O! ah! pooh! psha like the barking of a dog or the lowing of a calf, are noises, not words. If there were any advantage in classifying these sounds, we might group them according to the feelings which they express, as Interjections denoting joy, disgust, surprise, vexation, and so forth.

Interjections which are corruptions or contractions of words, or elliptical forms of expression, may be referred to the parts of speech to which they originally belong. So, adieu is 'to God (I commend you),' goodbye is 'God be with you,' hail is 'be thou hale' or 'healthy,' law! or lawks! is a corruption of 'Lord!' and marry! of 'Mary!'

QUESTIONS.

I. What are Correlative Conjunctions? Give the correlatives of either, though, both, and of such and so with different senses.

2. What, since, well. Illustrate by short sentences the various grammatical uses of each of these words, and mention in every instance its part of speech in your sentence.

3. Construct three Complex sentences, each containing as its subordinate clause the words when the accident happened. In the first sentence the subordinate clause is to be a noun clause, in the second an adjective clause, and in the third an adverbial clause.

199

CHAPTER XXI.

COMPOUNDS AND DERIVATIVES.

212. If we were to read down a column of words on a page of an English dictionary, we should find that the great majority of these words have been formed from other words, either by joining two words together, or by adding to a word a sound which by itself is without meaning. Thus from man in combination with other words there have been made freeman, mankind, midshipman, footman, while, by the addition of an element which has no significance alone, manly, unman, mannikin, have come into existence. The former process is called Composition, the latter Derivation: words made by the former process are called Compounds, by the latter, Derivatives. The terms 'Derivation' and 'Derivative' are not well chosen, as their meaning is here narrowed down from the sense in which they are generally used. When we speak of the derivation of a word we usually signify the source from which it comes: thus we say that phenomenon is of Greek 'derivation' and vertex of Latin 'derivation,' though as these words have been transferred ready-made from foreign languages they are not, in this special sense, English derivatives at all. But the employment of the terms derivation and derivative, in contrast with the terms composition and compound, is too well established to allow of our making a change, and the student must therefore bear in mind that when used in this connexion

they indicate an important distinction in the mode of the formation of words.

Composition is the formation of a word by joining words together.

or,

Derivation is the formation of a word—

(1) by adding a part not significant by itself, (2) by modifying an existing sound.

The part not significant by itself when attached at the beginning of a word is called a Prefix; when attached at the end, a Suffix.

A Hybrid is a compound or derivative containing elements which come from different languages.

213. Unlike Greek and German, modern English does not lend itself readily to the formation of long compounds. If the reader cares to turn to his Greek lexicon and to look up the word beginning op@poporo- or the still more formidable λeradoтeμaxo-, he will see this facility for making compounds burlesqued by Aristophanes. A humourist of our own day, Mark Twain, deals with German compounds in a like playful fashion.

In compound words, the first word usually modifies the meaning of the second. A ring-finger is a particular kind of finger; a finger-ring a particular kind of ring. In true grammatical compounds there is usually a change of form or of accent. So spoonful is a true grammatical compound of spoon full. Poorhouse and Newport carry an accent on the first syllable as compounds: as separate words each of the two is accented equally. Compare a poor house by the new port' with 'the poórhouse at Néwport.' Words joined by a hyphen with no change of form or of accent are merely printers' compounds.

214.

Words disguised in form.

The appearance of some words is deceptive, suggesting as it does that they are compounds when they are not, or

that they contain elements which do not really belong to them. Examples of this are seen in cray-fish, really from écrevisse, a crab,' and quite unconnected with 'fish': causeway, the same word as chaussée, and nothing to do with way' kickshaws from quelques-choses, goodbye from God be with you! shame-faced for shamefast, 'fast' or 'firm in shame,' i.e. in modesty, formed like steadfast.

215. Derivatives are generally formed by means of prefixes or suffixes: a few however are formed without the addition of a new sound by the change of an existing sound. Thus from glass we get glaze; from sit, set; from fall, fell; from drink, drench; from gold, gild; from tale, tell. In these cases we have modification but not addition.

Prefixes and Suffixes once possessed a meaning and existed as separate words. Thus the ending ly represents the word like: godlike and godly contain elements originally the same, but godlike is now described as a compound, and godly as a derivative.

216. A few of the more important Suffixes are given here for the purpose of illustration. They are distinguished according to (1) their force, (2) their origin. In the following list, Suffixes derived from the Romance languages are described as of Classical origin.

NOUN SUFFixes.

Diminutives:

(a) of English origin: maid-en, cock-e-rel, kern-el (from corn), lass-ie or baby, farth-ing (small fourth part), duck-l-ing, lamb-kin, bund-le (from bind), hill-ock.

(b) Of Classical origin: glob-ule, animal-cule, parti-cle, mors-el, violon-cello, vermi-celli, rivu-let, lanc-et, cigar-ette.

Notice that some of the latter group are not English formations: the words are diminutives in the foreign language from which we borrowed them, but they are not English diminutives any more than testatrix is an English feminine.

Diminutives sometimes express not smallness but (1) endearment, darling, Charlie, or (2) contempt, mannikin, worldling, wastrel.