ever organized any adequate controlling power. And what is the consequence? What is their condition? What ought they to be, and what are they? Corrupt all;-all clamant for reform. But unless the reform come from without, we need not, in any University, have any expectation of a reform coming from with in. Left to itself, there is no redemption;

Ipsa sui merces erit, et sine vindice præda."

Our only hope, a hope, indeed, long deferred, is a reform from without—from above-from the Supreme Civil Power. In regard to Edinburgh, it would be peculiarly simple to expect a correction of the evils prevalent in that University, from the bodies—either that in which the corruption has originated, or that by which it has been tolerated, or rather-we should say in charity-not observed. It would, indeed, be positively foolish to call to the Senatus Academicus-the Senatus as now constituted, "Arise! awake!" It would be more rational to invoke even the Town Council; but if the State do not interfere, then this University must, with others, abide the alternative-" be for ever fallen!" Surely, however, the State can not always issue costly Commissions, and yet, never afterward heed their recommendations. In the cases of Oxford and Cambridge, reform may indeed be difficult; but in the case of Edinburgh, nothing could be more easy. In fact, the most essential improvements are in general manifest, and even urged in the Reports of the two Commissions; and these, we may now confidently hope, will not long remain neglected, seeing that Government seems seriously engaged on an inquiry into the English Universities.

But I have dwelt too long upon this subject, and shall only add that the experience of Edinburgh, like the experience of every other University in which the same practice has been pursued, proves, that an examination by professors exclusively-by all the professors of a faculty--and by professors left to their

1 When limited to a few, responsibility is concentrated; but when (as now in Edinburgh), the right of examination, and consequently the benefit of an indirect compulsion on attendance, is conceded to all the members of this Faculty, all become interested in certain measures, responsibility is attenuated to a minimum, and the whole body does, what a part of it would not be bold enough to attempt. Since the previous sheet was printed, above four months ago, I see that the medical examiners have been publicly accused of rejecting a candidate, not for incompetence, but on the confessed ground that he was supposed favorable to a medical theory, rising dangerously in opinion, and not in unison with the medical theory of his examiners. On such a step --such an injustice-such an absurdity, the old sectional examiners would not have ventured. If the charge be well founded, an Edinburgh medical graduate may now be an ignorant, unable to spell his mother tongue, but must not be a proficient, pro

own discretion, and without even the obligation of oath, statute or publicity, is utterly worthless, as a criterion of competency in the candidate for an academical degree. Without entering on details, I would only say in general, that to redeem the Edinburgh medical degree, even to respectability, there are required the three following conditions:

1°. An extra-professorial examination, to ascertain whether the candidate possess the general literary and scientific knowledge necessary for any liberal profession.

2o. An examination, either wholly extra-professorial, or, at least, with extra-professorial judges (who should also be examiners), to ascertain the professional qualifications of the candidate.

3°. The examiners and judges:-to be adequate to their functions; to act by rule; publicly, as far as possible; and, now as formerly, here as elsewhere, under the obligation of a solemn oath.

These are the requisites of mere respectability; but were the candidates impartially and ably classified on a sufficient standard, the examination might be raised to a higher value.

The recommendation now made to introduce other examiners for a degree beside the academical lecturers, is no anomaly, is no innovation. It is, in fact, a return to principle--to the custom of all academical antiquity, a return even to the practice of the University of Edinburgh itself, to wit, in its first bestowal of medical degrees. Then, the doctors of the Edinburgh College of Physicians were called in; indeed, the graduation fee which has since been left to the "Medical Faculty" of the University, belonged to the Library, and was thence taken, to bestow it on these extra-academical examiners, in compensation of their nonofficial trouble.—I may add, that had the Town-Council, in their recent regulation touching the medical degrees of this University, limited the qualifying attendance to the courses given by medical graduates, and more especially by Edinburgh medical graduates, there could not possibly have been any valid doubt with regard to the legal competency of such regulation, which would, in fact, have been only a step toward a state of true academical legality.

fessing to think for himself. So certain also are now the opinions of a majority touching the very practice, and in the very body, where, heretofore, medical skepticism was always in proportion to medical wisdom! Our Gregorys and Thomsons-what would they now say to this? See p. 252, note.

APPENDIX III. EDUCATIONAL.

(B.) THE EXAMINATION AND HONORS FOR A DEGREE IN ARTS, DURING CENTURIES ESTABLISHED IN THE UNIVERSITY OF LOUVAIN.

I HAVE previously referred (p. 403) to this Appendix, for a statement in regard to the examination for degrees by the University of Louvain, in its Faculty of Arts; which, though overlooked by all academical historians, is, I think, the best example upon record of the true mode of such examination, and, until recent times, in fact, the only example in the history of Universities worthy of consideration at all. And as I shall have occasion to make a reference to this examination, from the Appendix upon Oxford, it may be convenient to insert here, what I should otherwise have postponed.

The University of Louvain, long second only to that of Paris. in the number of its students and the celebrity of its teachers, and more comprehensive even than Paris in the subjects taught; was for several centuries famed, especially, for the validity of its certificates of competency-for the value of its different degrees. It is recorded by Erasmus as a current saying, "that no one can graduate in Louvain without knowledge, manners, and age.". But among its different degrees, a Louvain promotion in Arts was decidedly pre-eminent; because, in this Faculty, the principles of academical examination were most fully and purely carried out. I am acquainted, I think, with all the principal documents touching this illustrious school; and beside the Privilegia, or collection of statutes, &c. (1728), possess the relative historical works of Lipsius (1605), of Grammaye (1607), of Vernulæus (1627 and 1667), of Golnitz (1631), of Valerius Andreas (1636 and 1650), of the Zedlerian Lexicon (1738), and of Reiffenberg (1829, sq.) But strange to say, I have found no articulate account of its famous examinations, except in the Academia Lovaniensis of Vernulæus; and from that book, with a short preliminary extract from the Fasti of Andreas, I translate the following passages.

VALERIUS ANDREAS." PHILOSOPHY, from the very commence

ment of the University, was wont to be taught, partly in private houses, partly in the Street' or public School of Arts (where, indeed, the prelections of two chairs in that Faculty, to wit, Ethics and Rhetoric, are even now publicly delivered), the Masters themselves teaching each his peculiar subject at a fixed and separate hour; until, in the year 1446, by the authority of the Faculty [private tuition was abolished, and] four Houses were appropriated to licensed instruction in Philosophy, [some eight and twenty other Colleges belonging to it, being left to supply board and lodging to the students.] These four Houses are commonly called Pædagogia, and, from their several insignia, go by the names of the Lily, the Falcon, the Castle, the Hog-The LANGUAGES (Hebrew, Greek, and Latin), thereafter obtained their special Professors in the Trilingual or Buslidian College-The chair of MATHEMATICS (though its subject had been previously taught), was founded in the year 1636.”—(Pp. 9, 243, 249.)

VERNULEUS, L. ii. c. 6. "ON STUDY AND DEGREES IN THE [LOUVAIN] FACULTY OF ARTS.

"Let us now speak concerning Study, which in this Faculty is two-fold.

"The study of Philosophy is accomplished in two years. For there is given nine months to Logic, eight to Physics, four to Metaphysics; while the three last months are devoted to Repetitions of the whole course of Philosophy.-['Account is also taken of Moral Philosophy, taught on Sundays and Holidays, by the public Professor, in the Street' or School of Arts, and in the Pædagogia by domestic Professors.'-(V. Andreas, p. 242.)]

6

"The exercises of this philosophical study take place in four Gymnasia, called Pædagogia. In each of these there are four daily prelections, two before, two after, noon; -- and each House has four Professors of Philosophy, two of whom are called Primaries, two Secondaries. These Professors divide among them the whole course of Philosophy. And first, in Logic: The Primaries expound the Introduction of Porphyry, Aristotle's Categories, and his books of Prior and Posterior Analytics; while the Secondaries, after an explanation of the Elements of Logic, lecture upon Aristotle's books of Enouncement, Topics, and Sophisms. In Physics and Metaphysics' [I omit the enumeration of

Compare Valerius Andreas, pp. 242, 243.

books, the Primaries teach at the hours of six and ten of the morning; the Secondaries at two and four of the afternoon; and the hearers for one hour take down the dictates' of their instructor, while for another they are examined and required to give an account of the prelection which they have again, in the interval, considered.

"The exercises of Disputation are either private or public.

"The private are conducted in the several Pædagogia, and in kind are two-fold.—In the first place, the students, at certain fixed hours, contend with each other, on proposed questions, note each other's errors, and submit them to the judgment of the Professor; and he, thereafter, assigns place and rank to the more learned.Besides these, on each Monday and Friday, there are Disputations held on points of Logic and Physics, over which one of the Professors in rotation presides. These commence in January, and end in June.

"The public Disputations take place in the common School of Arts, which is called 'The Street;' and these also are of two kinds.—In the first place, on Mondays and Fridays, during Lent, the Physical auditors of all the Gymnasia, divided into certain classes, compete among themselves for glory; one prescribing to another the matter of disputation.-Besides these, there are eight other Disputations, carried through on Sundays, and which commence in January. There are present all the Physical hearers with their Professors, and in these they severally make answer during an hour on certain predetermined theses; and are oppugned by the Prior Bachelor (that is, by him who has been chosen from the more learned), and thereafter by others.

"The Honors or Degrees which are obtained in this Faculty are those of Bachelor, Licentiate, Master. Previous to these there is one public act, that of Determination, as it is called. Therein the students of Logic, in a public meeting of the whole University, severally state their opinion on some Ethical question proposed by the Preses, who is one of the Professors. In this manner they profess themselves Students of Philosophy, but obtain no degree.

The Faculty had not a printed cursus on these departments, as on Logic. The Commentaries by the Masters of Louvain on the books of the Organon, are among the best extant. But the objects of study in all the Pædagogia were uniform; and all the pupils could be equally examined, &c., against each other in the general concourse of the University.