.ower order of the Coliseum, be it observed, wants the triglyph, the distinguishing feature of the order; so that although in a previous page we have described it as Doric, we scarcely know whether we have not erred in our description. But to approach the subject of the Roman Doric more closely, we will examine the general form of the example which the theatre of Marcellus affords. Therein the whole height of the order is 31·15 ft. whereof the entablature is rather more than one fifth, and the columns are 7.86 diameters high. From the intercolumniations nothing can be deduced, because the arcade which separates puts them out of comparison with other examples. Its profile is clearly that which has formed the basis upon which the Doric of the Italian architects is founded; they have, however, generally added a base to it. There is great difference between it and the Grecian Doric, which in its form is much more pyramidal, and would, even in ancient Rome, have been out of character with the decorations applied in the architecture of the city, in which all severity of form was abandoned. The details, however, of the Roman as well as of the Grecian Doric will be given, and, from the representations, better understood by the reader, when we come to treat of the Orders in the third book of this work, where some varieties of it are submitted to the reader. 260. In the examples of Roman Ionic, that of the theatre of Marcellus excepted, there is a much greater inferiority than in the instance of Roman Doric to which we have just alluded; indeed, that of the Temple of Concord, now known as the Temple of Saturn, is composed in so debased a style, that allusion ought scarcely to be made to it. The following table exhibits the general proportions of the four Roman profiles of it : 261. From the above it appears that, except in the case of the Temple of Saturn, the entablature is about one fifth of the height of the whole order, and that the column diminishes about of its lower diameter. The capitals of the Roman are much smaller than those of the Grecian Ionic, and their curves are by no means so elegant and graceful. There is no appearance of refinement and care in their composition, for which the rules of Vitruvius give an altogether much more beautiful profile than those examples, we have here quoted, present. In the Temple of Saturn, the volutes are placed diagonally on the capital, so that the four faces are similar in form. In the Greek specimens, as also in the Temple of Fortuna Virilis, this is done on one angle only of the capital of the columns, and that for the purpose of again bringing the faces of the volutes on to the flanks of the building, instead of showing the baluster sides of the capitals. On the whole, we think the modern Italian architects succeeded in producing much more beautiful profiles of this order, which never appears to have been a favourite in Rome, than their ancient predecessors. 262. The Corinthian seems to have been greatly preferred to the other orders by the luxurious Romans. There is little doubt that the capitals were generally the work of Greek sculptors, and some of those they have left are exceedingly beautiful; one that we have already mentioned, that of Vespasian, points to sculpture of the highest class. following table contains the general proportions of six well-known examples in Rome:-- The Upper Dia lower Dia- meters in meter in En-, Height. glish Feet. Entablature in Terms of the Dia Terms of Diameter of Shaft. meter. meter. 47 022 4 797 31674 3'6-12 47.084 4 598 47.648 = 4 841 63'5 9.804 2.317 2.092 1.175 *855 6.568 28'037 1.269 .883 2 902 9.661 2.388 263. From the above, it appears that a mean of the whole height of the Corinthian order in the Roman examples is 12-166 diameters, and that the entablature is less than a fifth of the height of the order, being as 1686: 10000. The diminution of the shaft is not so much as in the Ionic, being only of the lower diameter. The Temple of the Sybil at Tivoli presents quite a distinct species, and is the romance of the art, if we may be allowed such an expression. The mean height of the columns is 9·833 diameters, being rather slenderer than the height recommended by Vitruvius (Lib. iv. c. 9.). The attic base, which will be considered in another portion of the work, was frequently employed by the Roman artists. 264. The invention of the Composite order is attributed, with every probability, to the Romans. It resembles generally the Corinthian, the main variation consisting in the part above the second tier of leaves in the capital. The following table exhibits the general proportions of three examples : 265. The mean of these makes the entablature a little less than one fifth of the entire height of the order, the ratio being as 1955: 10000. The diminution of the shaft is A of the lower diameters. The mean height of the columns is 9.806 diameters. strongly marked feature in Roman architecture is the stylobate or pedestal for the reception of columns, which was not used by the Greeks. In the examples, it varies in height, but, generally speaking, it is very nearly four diameters of the column; a mean of those used in the triumphal arches comes out at 3·86 diameters. Another difference from Greek architecture is in the form of the Roman pilaster, which was sometimes so strongly marked as to form a sort of square column with capitals and bases similar to those of the columns it accompanies, except in being square instead of circular on the plan. It is diminished in some buildings, as in the portico of the Pantheon, and in that of Mars Ultor, while in others, no such diminution takes place. The reader will recollect that the Greek anta were never diminished, that their projection was always very small, and that the mouldings of their capitals were totally different from the columns with which they are connected. 266. But the most wonderful change the Romans effected in architecture was by the introduction of the arch; a change which, by various steps, led, through the basilica, to the construction of the extraordinary Gothic cathedrals of Europe, in its progress opening beauties in the art of which the Greeks had not the remotest conception. These matters will be more entered into in the next section: we only have to observe here, that its importance was not confined to the passage of rivers by means of bridges, but that it enabled the Romans to supply in the greatest abundance to their cities water of a wholesome quality, without which no city can exist. To the introduction, morcover, of the arch, their triumphal edifices were indebted for their principal beauties; and without it their theatres and amphitheatres would have lost half their elegance and magnificence. Whence the arch came is not known. It is now considered to have been borrowed from the Etruscans, and was employed at Rome in the oldest constructions of the Kings, as early as B.C. 640, In the section on Egyptian architecture, the subject has already been noticed. 267. The use of coupled columns and niches exhibits other varieties in which the Romans delighted; but the former are not found till an age in which the art of architecture had begun to decline. 268. There is still another point to which the reader's attention must be directed, and it is almost a sure test of Roman or Greek design; namely, the form of the mouldings of an order on their section. In purely Greek architecture, the contours of the mouldings are all formed from sections of the cone, whilst in that of the Romans, the contours are all portions of circles. 259. Under the climate of Rome it became necessary to raise the pitch of the roof higher than was necessary in Greece; hence the Roman pediment was more inclined to the horizon. As, however, when we consider the practical formation of roofs generally, we shall investigate the law which, forced by climate upon the architect, governed the inclination of the pediment, the reader is referred, on that point, to the place in this work where the subject of roofs is treated. (See Book II. Ch III., sec. iv., par. 2027.) SECT. XIV. BIZANTINE AND ROMANESQUE ARCHITECTURE. 270. We propose in this section to take a concise view of the state of debased Roman architecture, from the year 476, in which the Roman empire in the West was destroyed, to the introduction of the pointed arch at the latter end of the 12th century. It will be necessary to premise that the term Romanesque is very general, and comprises the works of the Lombards as well as those of a later species, which in this country are called Saxon and Norman, for the character of all is the same, and we think much confusion will be prevented by the arrangement we propose. Between the fifth and the eighth centuries, at the beginning of which latter period the whole of Europe formed one great Gothic kingdom, the prospect is over a dreary desert in which the oases of our art are few and far between. The constant change of power, the division of the empire, which was so overgrown that it could no longer hang tegether, the irruptions of the Goths, whose name has been most improperly connected with all that is barbarous in art, make it no easy task to give the unlearned reader more than a faint idea of what occurred in the extended period through which, often in darkness, we must proceed to feel our way. But, previous to this, we shall continue the state of the architecture in the East: because, having already given some account of Saracenic architecture, which had its origin about the seventh century, we shall not again have to divert his attention from the subject until the reader is introduced to the pointed style: an arrangement which, we trust, will assist his memory in this history. 271. The emperor Theodosius, who died A. D. 395, exhibited great talent in arms, and was desirous to extend the benefit of his influence to the arts, in which he did much for the empire. His sons, Arcadius in the city of Constantinople, and Honorius at Rome, were incapable of doing them any service, though by them was raised the famous Theodosian column at the first named city, which was surrounded with bassi relievi, after the fashion of that crected long before in honour of Trajan at Rome. The ascent of Theodosius II. to the throne promised as well for the empire as for the arts. He called architecture to his aid for embellishing the cities of the empire. Under him, in 413, Constantinople was surrounded with a new wall; some extensive baths, and a magnificent palace for the two sisters of Pulcheria were erected. In 447, an earthquake nearly destroyed the city, which was so admirably restored under this emperor that he might with propriety have been called its second founder. Except some trifling matters under Anastasius II., and Justin his successor, little was done till Justinian, the nephew of the last named, ascended the throne of the East, in 527. By him the celebrated architect Anthemius was invited to Constantinople. Through the genius of this artist, aided by his colleague Isidorus of Miletus, on the ruins of the principal church of the city, which, dedicated to Saint Sophia or the Eternal Wisdom, had been twice destroyed by fire, was raised so splendid an edifice, that Justinian is said on its completion to have exclaimed, as Gibbon observes, "with devout vanity: ""Glory be to God, who hath thought me worthy to accomplish so great a work. I have vanquished thee, O Solomon." We shall make no apology for giving the description in the words of the historian we have just quoted; a representation of the building being appended in figs. 139. and 140. "But the pride of the Roman Solomon, before twenty years had elapsed, was humbled by an earthquake, which overthrew the eastern part of the dome. Its splendour was restored by the perseverance of the same prince; and in the thirty-sixth year of his reign, Justinian celebrated the second dedication of a temple, which remains, after twelve centuries, a stately monument of his fame. The architecture of St. Sophia, which is now converted into the principal mosque, has been imitated by the Turkish sultans, and that venerable pile continues to excite the fond admiration of the Greeks, and the more rational curiosity of European travellers. The eye of the spectator is disappointe by an irregular prospect of half domes and shelving roofs: the western front, the principal approach, is destitute of simplicity and magnificence; and the scale of dimensions has been much surpassed by several of the Latin cathedrals. But the architect who first erected an aerial cupola is entitled to the praise of bold design and skilful execution. The dome of St. Sophia, illuminated by four and twenty windows, is formed with so small a curve, that the depth is only one-sixth of its diameter; the measure of that diameter is 106 ft. 7 in. Fig. 139. FLAN, OF CHURCH OF ST. SOPHIA. and the lofty centre, where a crescent has supplanted the cross, rises to the perpendicular height of 182 ft. above the pavement. The circle which encompasses the dome lightly reposes on four strong arches, and their weight is firmly supported by four massy piles" (piers), "whose strength is assisted on the northern and southern sides by four columns of Egyptian granite. A Greek cross inscribed in a quadrangle represents the form of the edifice; the exact breadth from b. to b. is 231 ft., and 268 ft. from a. to a., or the extreme length; the width under the dome from c. to c. is 109.6 ft. The vestibule opened into the warther or exterior portico. That portico was the humble station of the penitents. The nave or body of the church was filled by the congregation of the faithful; but the two sexes were prudently distinguished, and the upper and lower galleries were allotted for the more private devotion of the women. Beyond the northern and southern piles" (piers), "a balustrade, terminated on either side by the thrones of the emperor and the patriarch, divided the nave from the choir; and the space, as far as the steps of the altar, was occupied by the clergy and singers. The altar itself, a name which insensibly became familiar to Christian ears, was placed in the eastern recess, artificially built in the form of a demi-cylinder, and this sanctuary communicated by several doors with the sacristy, the vestry, the baptistery, and the contiguous buildings, subservient either to the pomp of worship or the private use of the ecclesiastical ministers." We should be fearful of thus continuing the quotation, but that we prefer the language of Gibbon to our own: beyond which, the practical knowledge the rest of the description discloses is not unworthy the scientific architect, and the subject is the type of the great modern cathedrals, that of St. Paul, in London, among the rest. "The memory," he continues, " of past calamities inspired Justinian with a wise resolution, that no wood, except for the doors, should be admitted into the new edifice; and the choice of the materials was applied to the strength, the lightness, or the splendour of the respective parts. The solid piles" (piers) "which sustained the cupola were composed of huge blocks of freestone, hewn into squares and triangles, fortified by circles of iron, and firmly cemented by the infusion of lead and quicklime; but the weight of the cupola was diminished by the levity of its substance, which consists either of pumice-stone that floats in the water, or of bricks from the Isle of Rhodes, five times less ponderous than the ordinary sort. The whole frame of the edifice was constructed of brick; but those base materials were concealed by a crust of marble; and the inside of St. Sophia, the cupola, the two larger and the six smaller semi-domes, the walls, the hundred columns, and the pavement, delight even the eyes of barbarians with a rich and variegated picture." Various presents of marbles and mosaics, amongst which latter were seen representations of Christ, the Virgin, and saints, added to the magnificence of the edifice, and the precious metals in their purity imparted splendour to the scene. Before the building was four feet out of the ground its cost had amounted to a sum equivalent to 200,000l. sterling, and the total cost of it when finished may, at the lowest computation, be reckoned as exceeding one million. In Constantinople alone, the emperor dedicated twenty five churches to Christ, the Virgin, and favourite saints. These were highly decorated, and imposing situations were found for them. That of the Holy Apostles at Constantinople, and of St. John at Ephesus, appear to have had the church of St. Sophia for their types; but in them the altar was placed under the centre of the dome, at the junction of four porticoes, expressing the figure of the cross. "The pious munificence of the emperor was diffused over the Holy Land; and if reason," says Gibbon, "should condemn the monasteries of both sexes, which were built or restored by Justinian, yet charity must applaud the wells which he sank, and the hospitals which he founded, for the relief of the weary pilgrims." Almost every saint in the calendar acquired the honour of a temple; almost every city of the empire obtained the solid advantages of bridges, hospitals, and aqueducts ; but the severe liberality of the monarch disdained to indulge his subjects in the popular luxury of baths and theatres." He restored the Byzantine palace; but selfishness, as respected his own comfort, could not be laid to his charge: witness the costly palace he erected for the infamous Theodora, and the munificent gifts, equal to 180,000l. sterling, which he bestowed upon Antioch for its restoration after an earthquake. His care was not limited to the peaceful enjoyment of life by the empire over which he presided; for the fortifications of Europe and Asia were multiplied by Justinian from Belgrade to the Euxine, from the conflux of the Save to the mouth of the Danube; a chain of above fourscore fortified places was extended along the banks of the great river, and many military stations appeared to extend beyond the Danube, the pride of the Roman name. We might considerably extend the catalogue of the extraordinary works of Justinian; but our object is a general view, not a history of the works of this extraordinary person, of whom, applying the verses architecturally, it might truly be said Si Pergama dextra Defendi possent: etiam hac defensa fuissent; and by whom, if architecture could again have been restored, such a consummation would have been accomplished. 272. In 565 Justin succeeded to the throne of the East, after whose reign nothing occurs to prevent our proceeding to the Western part of the empire, except the notice necessary to be taken of Leo the Isaurian, who ordered the statues in the different churches to be broken in pieces, and the paintings which decorated them to be destroyed. Under him Ravenna was lost to the Eastern empire, and under his predecessors Mahomet appeared; and in his successors originated the Saracenic architecture described in a previous section. It was under Justin, in 571, that the prophet, as he is called, was born, and was in 632 succeeded by Abubekr. 273. We now return to the empire in the West, whose ruin, in 476, drew after it that of the arts, which had grievously degenerated since the fourth century, at which period their decadence was strongly marked. But we must digress a little by supplying a chasm in the history of our art relative to the ancient basilica of Rome, the undoubted types of the comparatively modern cathedrals of Europe; and within the city of Rome we shall find ample materials for tracing the origin, whereof we speak. 274. The severe laws against the Christians which Severus had passed expired with his authority, and the persecuted race, between A. n. 211 and 249, enjoyed a calm, during which they had been permitted to erect and consecrate convenient edifices for the purposes of religious worship, and to purchase lands even at Rome for the use of the community. Under Dioclesian, however, in many places the churches were demolished, though in some situations they were only shut up. This emperor, as if desirous of committing to other hands the work of persecution he had planned by his edicts, no sooner published them, than he divested himself, by abdication, of the imperial purple. 275. Under Constantine, in the beginning of the fourth century, the Christians began again to breathe; and though that emperor's religion, even to the period of his death, is involved in some doubt, it is certain that his opinion, as far as we can judge from his acts, was much inclined towards Christianity. Out of the seven principal churches, or basilicæ, of Rome, namely, Sta. Croce di Gierusalemme, S. Giovanni Laterano, S. Lorenzo fuori le Murà, S. Paolo, S. Pietro, S. Sebastiano, and Sta. Maria Maggiore, all but the last were founded by Constantine himself. The ancient basilica, which derived its name from Barevs (a king), and ouros (a house), was that part of the palace wherein justice was administered to the people. The building for this purpose retained its name long after the extinction of the kingly office, and was in use with the Romans as well as the Grecians. Vitruvius does not, however, give us any specific difference between those erected by one or the other of those people. In lib. v. c. 1. he gives us the details of its form and arrangement, for which the reader is referred to his work. The name of basilica was afterwards transferred to the first buildings for Christian worship; not because, as some have supposed, the first Christian emperors used the ancient basilica for the celebration of their religious rites, but more probably with reference to the idea of sovereignty which the reli gion exercised, though we do not assert that such conclusion is to be necessarily drawn |