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general plan, is the church of St. Anthony at Padua, which has six domes over the nave, transepts, centre, and choir. It is, moreover, distinguished by two slender towers or minarets, which impart to it the air of a Saracenic edifice.

286. The Italian architecture in the Byzantine or Romanesque style preserved a very different sort of character from that of the same date in Germany and other parts of Europe. Thus,-taking the cathedrals of Pisa and Worms, whose respective periods of construction are very close together, the former is separated into its nave and aisles by columns with Corinthian capitals, reminding one very much of the early Christian basilica; in the latter, the separation of the nave from the aisles is by square piers. The cathedral at Pisa, with its baptistery, campanile, and the campo santo or cemetery, are a group of buildings of more curiosity than any four edifices in the world, and the more so from being so strongly marked with the distinguishing features of the Byzantine and Romanesque styles. The cathedral (fig. 147.), whose architect was Buschetto of Dulichio, a Greek, was built in the

Fig. 147.

ELEVATION OF CATHEDRAL AT PISA.

beginning in the 11th century. It consists of a nave, with two aisles on each side of it, transepts, and choir, Its bases, capitals, cornices, and other parts were fragments of antiquity collected from dif ferent places, and here with great skill brought together by Buschetto. The plan of the church is a Latin cross; its length from the interior face of the wall to the back of the recess is 311 ft., the width of the nave and four side aisles 106 ft. 6 in., the length of the transept 237 ft. 4 in., and its width, with its side aisles, 58 ft. The centre nave is 41 ft. wide, and has twentyfour Corinthian columns, twelve on each side, all of marble, 24 ft. 10 in. high, and full 2 ft. 3 in. in diameter. From the capitals of these columns arches spring, and over them is another order of columns, smaller and more numerous, from the circumstance of one being inserted over the centre of an intercolumniation below, and from their accompanying two openings under arches nearly equal to the width of such intercolumniations. These form an upper gallery, or triforium, anciently appropriated to the use of females. The four aisles have also isolated columns of the Corinthian order, bat smaller, and raised on high plinths, in order to make them range with the others. The transepts have each a nave and two side aisles, with isolated columns, the same size as those of the other. The soffit of the great nave and of the transepts is of wood, gilt, but the smaller ones are groined. The height of the great nave is 91 ft., that of the transepts about 84 ft., and that of the aisles, 35 ft. In the centre nave are four piers, on which rest four large arches, supporting an elliptical cupola. The church is lighted by windows above the second order of the interior. The edifice is surrounded by steps. The extreme walth of the western front, measured above the plinth moulding, is 116 ft., and the height from the pavement to the apex of the roof is 112 ft. 3 in. The façade has five stories, the first whereof consists of seven arches, supported by six Corinthian columns and two pilasters, the middle arch being larger than the others: the second has twenty-one arches, supported by twenty columns and two pilasters; the third is singular, from the façade contracting where the two aisles finish, and forming two lateral inclined planes, whence in the middle are columns with arches on them as below. The columns which are in the two inclined planes gradually diminish in height: the fifth story is the same, and forms a triangular pediment, the columns and arches as they approach the angles becoming more diminutive. The two exterior sides have two orders of pilasters, one over the other. The roof of the nave is supported, externally, by a wall decorated with columns, and arches resting on their capitals. The whole of the building is covered with lead. The drum of the cupola is externally ornamented with eighty-eight columns connected by arches, over which are pediments in marble, forming a species of crowns. The principal point of difference in these cathedrals from the old basilicæ, in imitation whereof they were doubtless built, is in the addition of the transepts, by which a cruciform plan was given to these edifices. The style of the building in question is much lighter than most of the buildings of the period. But, whatever the taste

and style, the architect of it was a very skilful mechanic. One of his epitaphs, at Pisa, we subioin, in proof of what we have stated.

Quod vix mille boum possent juga juncta movere,
Et quod vix potuit per mare ferre ratis,
Buschetti nisu, quod erat mirabile visu,
Dena puellaruin turba levavit onus.

287. In Germany, the 10th and 11th centuries afford some edifices very important in the history of the art. Such are the cathedrals of Spire, Worms, Mayence, and others, still in existence to testify their extraordinary solidity and magnificence. In that country, as Möller remarks, there was a great disparity between its several provinces, as respected their degrees of civilisation. On the banks of the Rhine, and in the south, cities were established when those parts became subject to the Romans, and there the arts of peace and the Christian religion took root, and flourished; whilst, in the north and east, paganism was still in existence. Christianity, indeed, and civilisation gradually and generally extended from the southern and western parts. The clergy, we know from history, themselves directed the building of churches and convents. The buildings, therefore, of these parts are of great importance in the history of architecture. The leading forms of these churches, as well as of those that were built about the same period in France and England, are founded upon the ancient basilica; that is, they were long parallelograms with side aisles, and transepts which represent the arms of the cross, over whose intersection with the nave there is frequently a louvre. The choir and chancel terminate semicircularly on the plan. The semicircle prevails in the vaultings and over openings. The nave is lofty, frequently covered with groined vaulting, sometimes with flat timber covering; the gables are of small inclination. In the upper parts small short columns are frequently introduced. The prevailing feature in the exterior is horizontality, by which it is distinguished from the style which came into use in the 13th century. The profiles of the mouldings are, almost without exception, of Roman origin; the impost mouldings under the arches are, in this respect, peculiarly striking; and among the parts the Attic base constantly appears. The Roman basilica were always covered with flat horizontal ceilings; those of the churches we are speaking of are mostly vaulted. Hence the necessity of substituting pillars or piers for the insulated columns, which had only to carry wooden roofs. There are, however, a few churches remaining, which preserve the ancient type, as a church at Ratisbon, and the conventual churches of Paulinzell and Schwarzach. Fig. 148. shows the plan, and fig. 149. a sketch of one bay in a

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149. ONE BAY OF NAVE AT WORMS.

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longitudinal section of the north side of the nave of the cathedral at Worms, which was commenced in the year 996, and consecrated in 1016. It is one of the most ancient of the German churches, and one of the most instructive. On our examination of it, recently, we were astonished at its state of preservation. The plan, it will be seen, is strongly distinguished by the cross: the square piers are alternately decorated with half columns; and the chancel, at the east end, terminates with a semicircle. The western end of the church, which is octagonal, seems to be more modern than the rest, inasmuch as the pointed arch appears in it. Fig. 150. is a view of the edifice.

288. Parts of the cathedral at Mentz are more ancient than any part of that at Worms; hence it may be studied with advantage, as containing a view of the styles of several centuries. The south-eastern gate of the cathedral is given by Möller in his work (Flate VI.).

289. Whittington, a highly talented author, of whom the world was deprived at a very early age (Historical Survey of the Ecclesiastical Antiquities of France, 4to. Lond. 1809), observes, that the buildings in France of the 9th and 10th centuries were imi

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F. 150.

WORMS CATHEDRAL.

tated from the works of Charlemagne; but that his feeble successors, deficient both in riches and power, were unable to equal them in magnitude or beauty of materials. During a large portion of the 9th century the country was a scene of conster. nation and bloodshed. The most celebrated, and almost the only foundation of consequence which took place during this dreary period, was the abbey of Clugny. It was built, about 910, by Berno, abbot of Balme, with the assistance of William, Duke of Aquitaine and Auvergne. But there is little doubt that the present church was built in the following century. During the 11th century, the French, relieved from their disordered state, hastened to rebuild and repair their ecclesiastical structures, and their various cities and provinces vied with each other in displays of enthusiastic devotion. Robert the Pious, by his example, encouraged the zeal of his clergy and people; and the science of architecture revived with majesty and effect from its fallen state. Morard, the abbot of St. Germain des Prés, was enabled by this monarch to rebuild the church of his convent on a larger scale. St. Genevieve was also restored, and a cloister added to it, by his order. He, moreover, made preparations for erecting a cathedral at Paris in a style of as great inagnificence as the times would allow. At Orleans, the place of his nativity, he built the churches of Nôtre Dame de bonnes nouvelles, St. Peter, and St. Aignan, which last was consecrated in 1029. But our space does not allow an enumeration of all the works undertaken during his reign. About this time, the cathedral of Chartres was rebuilt by Fulbert, its bishop, whose great reputation, in France and the rest of Europe, enabled him to execute it in a manner till then unknown in his country. Cannte, the king of England, and Richard, Duke of Normandy, were among the princes who assisted him with contributions. His successor, Thierri or Theodoric, completed the building. The northern part was afterwards erected in 1060, at the expense of Jean Cormier, a native of Chartres, and physician to the king. The length of the church is 420 ft., its height 108 ft., and the nave 48 ft. wide. The transepts extend 210 ft. The abbey church of Cluny, which succeeded that above mentioned, was one of the largest and most interesting of the ecclesiastical monuments of France. It was begun in the commencement of the 11th century, by the abbot Odilo, and finished by his successor Hugh, in 1069. The ceremony of its dedication did not, however, take place till many years after. The style of architecture in France, in the 11th, was the same as in the preceding centuries; but the churches were larger and more solidly constructed. The oldest buildings of France, with some exceptions, are traceable to this æra; such are the venerable fabrics of St. Germain des Prés at Paris, St. Benigne at Dijon, those of Chartres, La Charité sur Loire (Cluny was destroyed 1789), and others; these all remain to illustrate the history of the arts at this period. But as we have said before, and cannot too often repeat, the style which prevailed was no more than a debased and feeble attempt to imitate the ancient architecture of Rome, and its best examples are not, in style even, equal to those of the art in its lowest state under the reign of Dioclesian; indeed the investigation is only important as being one of the means by which we can arrive at a just conclusion on the state of civilisation at different periods. Mores fabrica loquuntur is an expression of Cassiodorus, so true, that to prove it would indeed be lighting the sun with a candle; and we must not trifle with the patience of the reader.

290. The Saxon churches of England, to which and its more modern architecture our succeeding chapter will be entirely devoted, were very inferior in every respect to the Norman churches of France; and these latter differed materially from those in the neighbourhood of Paris, and further to the south. The Norman churches were larger in some examples; but they were more rude in design and execution. The abbey church of St. Stephen, raised at Caen by William the Conqueror, and that founded by his Queen Matilda in the same city in honour of the Holy Trinity, are the chief examples of the peculiar manner of building introduced by the Norman prelates into England at the end

of the 11th century; after which, as we shall presently see, a new and extraordinary style made its appearance in Europe, a style whereof fig. 151. will, on inspection, sufficiently give a general notion to the reader.

Fig. 151.

NINTH TO TWELFTH CENTURY.

AFTER TWELFTH CENTURY.

We

291. Before leaving the subject of this section, we must fall back again upon Italy to notice two or three works intimately connected with this period of the art. here more particularly allude to the celebrated baptistry and campanile of Pisa, a city which seems to have been a great nursing mother to our art, no less than to those of painting and sculpture. The Campo Santo of that city, of which, from the number of examples to be noticed, we regret we shall be unable to give but a short account, belongs to the next period, and must be noticed after them.

292. Dioti Salvi, whose birthplace even is unknown, commenced, in 1152, the baptistery of Pisa (fig. 152.), and after eight years completed it

It is close to the cathedral of the place, and though on the wall of the inner gallery there be an inscription, cut in the character of the middle 66 ages, A. D. 1278, EDIFICATA FUIT DE NOVO," and it may be consistent with truth that the edifice was ornamented by John of Pisa, there is nothing to invalidate the belief that the building stands on the foundations originally set out, and that for its principal features it is indebted to the architect whose name we have mentioned. It is 100 ft. in diameter within the walls, which are 8 ft. 6 in. thick. The covering is a double brick dome, the inner one conical, the outer hemispherical. The former is a frustum of a pyramid of twelve sides. Its upper extremity forms a horizontal polygon, finished with a small parabolic cupola, showing twelve small marble ribs on the exterior. The outer vault terminates above, at the base of the small cupola, which stands like a lantern over the aperture. From the pavement, the height of the cupola is 102 ft. The entrance is by a decorated doorway, from the sill of which the general pavement is sunk three steps round the building; the space between the steps and the wall having been provided for the accommodation of the persons assembled to view the ceremony of baptism. An aisle or corridor is continued round its interior circumference, being formed by eight granite columns and four piers, from which are turned semicircular arches, which support an upper gallery; and above the arches are twelve piers, bearing the semicircular arches which support the pyramidal

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P. 152.

BAPTISTERY OF PISA.

dome. On the exterior are two orders of Corinthian columns engaged in the wall, which support semicircular arches. In the upper order the columns are more numerous, inasmuch as each arch below bears two columns above it. Over every two arches of the upper order is a sharp pediment, separated by a pinnacle from the adjoining ones; and above the pediments a horizontal cornice encircles the building. Above the second story a division in the compartments occurs, which embraces three of the lower arches; the separation, being effected by piers triangular on the plan, crowned by pinnacles. Between these piers, semicircular headed small windows are introduced, over each of which is a small circular window, and thereover sharp pediments. Above these the convex surface of the dome springs up, and is divided by twelve ribs, truncated below the vertex, and ornamented with crockets. Between these ribs are a species of dormer windows, one between every two ribs, ornamented with columns, and surmounted each by three small pointed pediments. The total height is about 179 ft. The cupola is covered with lead and tiles; the rest of the edifice is marble.

The

293. The extraordinary campanile, or bell tower, near the cathedral at Pisa, was built about 1174. It is celebrated from the circumstance of its overhanging upwards of thirteen feet, a peculiarity observable in many other Italian towers, but in none to so great an extent as in this. There can be no doubt whatever that the defect has arisen from bad foundation. and that the failure exhibited itself long before the building was completed; because, ou one side, at a certain height, the columns are higher than on the other; thus showing an endeavour on the part of the builders to bring back the upper part of the tower to as vertical a direction as was practicable, and recover the situation of the centre of gravity. tower is cylindrical, 50 ft. in diameter, and 180 ft. high. It consists of eight stories of columns, in each of which they bear semicircular arches, forming open galleries round the story. The roof is flat, and the upper story contains some bells. 'The last of the group of buildings in Pisa is the Campo Santo, which, from its style and date (1278), is only mentioned here out of its place in order to leave this interesting spot without necessity for further recurrence to it. It is the public burying place of the city, and, whether from the remains on its walls of the earliest examples of Giotto, and Cimabue, the beauty of its proportions, or the sculpture that remains about, is unparalleled in interest to the artist. It is a quadrangle, 403 ft. in length, 117 ft. in width, and is surrounded by a corridor 32 ft. in breadth. This corridor is roofed, forming a sort of cloister with semicircular-headed windows, which were at first simple apertures extending down to the pavement, but they have been subsequently divided into smaller apertures by columns, which, from the springing of the arches, branch out into tracery of elegant design. The interior part of the quadrangle is open to the sky. Some of the arches above mentioned were completed as late as the year 1464.

The style of the transition to pointed art will be noticed in the section on POINTED ARCHITECTURE at the end of Book I.

SECT. XV.

(a) ORIGIN OF THE POINTED Arch,

294. About the end of the 12th and the beginning of the 13th century, a most singular and important change took place in the architecture of Europe. The flat southern roof, says Möller, was superseded by the high pitched northern covering of the ecclesiastical edifices, and its introduction brought with it the use of the pointed arch, which was substituted for the semicircular one: a necessary consequence, for the roof and vaults being thus raised, the character of the whole could not be preserved without changing the entire arrangement of the combination of forms. But we have great doubts on Möller's hypothesis; it will, indeed, be hereafter seen we have a different belief on the origin of the pointed arch. Before we at all enter upon the edifices of the period, we think it will be better to put the reader in possession of the different hypotheses in which various writers have indulged, relative to the introduction or invention of the pointed arch; and though we attach very little importance to the discovery, if it could now be clearly established, we are, as our work would be incomplete without the notice, compelled to submit them for the reader's consideration.

295. 1. Some have derived this style from the holy groves of the early Celts. - But we can see no ground for this hypothesis, for it was only in the 14th and 15th centuries that ribs between the groins (which have been compared to the small branches of trees) were introduced; hence it is rather difficult to trace the similarity which its supporters contend for. 296. 2. That the style originated from huts made with twigs and branches of trees intertwined. -An hypothesis fancifully conceived and exhibited to the world by Sir James Hall, in some very interesting plates attached to his work. Möller properly observes upon this theory of twigs, that it is only in the buildings of the 15th and 16th centuries that the supposed imitation of twigs appears.

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