apology was, perhaps, unnecessary. The age of Charles V. in Spain was Augustan for its architecture. By his mandate the palace was raised at Granada, a work of Machuca, another architect of this period. The principal façade is rustic, with three large gates, and eight Doric columns on pedes als sculptured with historical bassi-rilievi. The second story is lonie with eight columns, over which are pilasters. The internal vestibule is on a circular plan, with a portico and gallery on columns of the same order. Milizia, from whom we have extracted all our notices on the architecture of Spain in this age, regrets that the arches spring from the columns. Though we cannot commend such a practice, we should be sorry, in certain cases, to see a veto put upon it, because the practice is occasionally compatible with fine effect.

369. Towards the end of the sixteenth century appears in Spain an artist, by name Domingo Teotocopuli, by birth a Grecian, and a disciple of Tiziano V celli. He became, under his master. a good painter; but is known in Spain rather as a cel. brated architect in his day. At Madrid, and in Toledo, he executed many works of merit; but his grand work was the church and monastery of the Bernardine monks of San Domingo di Silos. in which he employed his talents in architecture, painting, and sculpture, the whole being from his hand,

370. Garzia d'Emere and Bartolomé di Bustamante, the later especially, would require an extended notice in the history of the art in Spain, if our limits permitted us to enter on their merits. The latter was the architect of the hospital of San Juan Bautista, founded by its archbishop in 1545, near Toledo. We should continue the account if buildings existed from which features different from the contemporaneous works in the rest of Europe could be extracted; but the fact is, that the progress of the art has already been told in other countries, and its success in Spain would be but a repetition in minor degree of what has already been said. Still we consider some notice must be taken of Juan Bautista of Toledo, who died in 1567, an architect and sculptor of surpassing merit; and as he was the architect who gave the designs for the Escurial, we shall not apologise for transcribing the account of him given by Milizia.

371. Having studied at Rome, he was invited to Naples by Don Pedro di Toledo, then viceroy there, who employed him as architect to the Emperor Charles V. in many important works in that city, whence he was called by Philip II. to become architect of all the royal works in Spain, and especially of the Escurial, which that monarch was anxious to erect in the most magnificent style. For this purpose he left Naples, and in 1563 commenced, upon his own design, the Escurial, which he continued to superintend till his death in 1567. In this great undertaking he was succeeded by Juan de Herrera, his pupil, who finished it. Those, therefore, says the author whom we quote, that attribute this work to Luis de Fox, to Bramante, to Vignola, and other architects who may have given designs for it, are unacquainted with the subject. The wonders related of the Escurial, as to the number of its doors and windows, are not tales to be here recounted; and the attempt, indeed, at exaggeration is vastly silly, because it is on so grand a scale that the simple truth imparts quite sufficient knowledge for conveying an idea of its splendour. The motives of Philip II. in founding this structure were twofold.-first, the injunction of his predecessor Charles V., who was desirous of constructing a tomb for the royal family of Spain; and secondly, of erecting an edifice of colossal dimensions to commemorate the famous victory of S. Quintin, achieved on the festival of San Lorenzo, the saint to whose interposition the king attributed his success. 'The situation chosen to receive it was beautiful. It is at the distance of a few miles from Madrid, at the foot of the Carpentani mountains, by which the two Castiles are divided. The plan of the edifice is said to resemble a gridiron, the instrument of martyrdom of San Lorenzo, of which the handle is the projection in the eastern façade; we confess, however, we have some difficulty in tracing the resemblance. It is divided internally into fifteen courts, varying considerably in size; many of them are decorated with porticoes and galleries, and contain in all upwards of eighty fountains. The materials are granite very well wrought; the roofs partly covered with lead and artly with slate. The cupola of the church is of stone. The four angles of the n ain plan are distinguished by towers rising four stories, besides those in the roofs, above the general fronts; besides which there are four others flanking the cupola. Parts of the building are in much better taste than others; but such an enormous pile of building cannot be otherwise than imposing, more especially, too, if there be anything like symmetry and regularity in the parts. Towards the west the principal façade is 740 feet long and 60 feet in height. The towers at the angles just mentioned rise to the height of 200 feet. This façade, like the others, has five stories of windows, which neces sarily of themselves, from the way in which they are arranged, have the effect of cutting it up into minute divisions. The central compartment of it is 140 feet in length, and consists of two orders of half columns; the lower has eight semi-columns, which are Dorie standing on a plinth, and in the central intercolumniation is the door; the other intercolumniations are filled with niches and windows in three stories. The upper order consists of four Ionic columns on pedestals, and is surmounted by a pediment. This upper

order has two stories of menes in its intercolumniations. in the upper central one where of is placed the statue of San Lorenzo. The two minor doors in this façade are also made features in the design. The façade towards the east has the projecting handle of the gridiron to which we have alluded, in which part is contained the palace; and westward of it the great chapel or church, with its cupola rising above the mass, to complete the composition. Towards the south the length 580 ft., similar to the length on the north. On entering from the central gate of the western façade, the monastery is divided from the college by a large vestibule, from which three large arched openings lead into the king's court: this is 230 ft. long, and 136 ft. wide, surrounded by buildings of five stories, and ornamented with pilasters. At the eastern end of this court is the entrance to the church, over whose vestibule or pronaos are the libraries. To it a flight of seven steps crosses the whole width of the court; and from the landing rises a Doric arcaded porch of five openings, three whereof belong to the central compartment and lead to the church, the other two leading to the monastery and the college. Behind the porch the façade of the church rises, and is flanked by two towers, which respectively belong to the monastery and college, and are ornamented above the general height of the buildings of the court with two orders of pilasters, being terminated by small cupolas. The interior of the church is Doric, and is in plan a Greek cross. The nave is 53 ft. and the aisles are 30 ft. wide. Its whole length is 364 ft., its width 230, and height 170. From the intersection of the nave and transepts the cupola rises, 66 ft. in diameter, and 330 ft. in height from the pavement to the cross. Its exterior is composed with a square tambour or drum, if it may be so called, from which the order rises. The choir is only 30 ft. high, and its length but 60 ft. In point of taste and dimensions, the church is inferior to several in other parts of Europe. The presbytery, we should have stated, is raised, so as to form almost another church, and seemingly without relation to the principal one. The staircase which leads to the Pantheon, and which possesses considerable magnificence, is placed between the church and the antesacristy we are not aware why this name has been given to the sepulchre of the kings of Spain. It is nearly under the high altar. The chamber appropriated to the reception of the kings is 36 ft. diameter, and 38 ft. in height, richly encrusted with various marbles and metals, and ornamented with sixteen double Corinthian pilasters on pedestals, arranged octagonally; and between them are recesses, with the sarcophagi, amounting to twenty-six, that is, four in each of six sides, and two over the entrance which faces the altar of the Resurrection. This is a fair specimen of the style which prevailed in Spain under the reigns of Philip IV. and Charles II. The college, the seminary, and the royal palace occupy the rest of the building. In 1773, many additions were made to the buildings about the Eseurial for the Infants Don Antonio and Don Gabriele, by Villaneuva, an Italian architect, and by them the palace was much improved. Juan de Herrera, who died in 1597, besides his employment at the building just described, contributed greatly to the advancement of the art by the execution of the many commissions with which he was entrusted. The bridge of Segovia, at Madrid. is by him; as is the royal pleasure-house at Aranjuez, begun under Philip II. and finished by Charles III.,-a work which, though far from pure, exhibits great architectural ability. His successor at the Escurial was Francesco de Mora, by whom, at Madrid, is the Palice de los Consejos, the most splendid edifice which that capital can boast Instead of a central doorway, it has two at its flanks, of the Doric order, with appropriate decorations. In the beginning of the seventeenth century, the great square of Madrid was erected after the designs of Juan Gomez de Mora, and is admirable for its grandeur and symmetry. This architect built at Alcala the church and college of the Jesuits, which, Milizia says, is a magnificent and well-proportioned edifice. It is of two orders, and the material employed in the façade is granite. The royal convent of the Augustins, at Madrid. is also attributed to him."

372. Early in the eighteenth century Felipe Ivara, or Juvara, a native of Messina, had very great employ, we might almost say throughout Europe. He became the pupil of Fontana, and afterwards, on his visiting Spain, seems to have established a school there. He built the façade of the royal palace of S. Ildefonso, looking towards the gardens. Ivara died in 1735, at Madrid, whither he had been invited by Philip V. to rebuild the palace, which had been consumed by fire. The work was afterwards entrusted to Sacchetti, a pupil of Ivara. It is on a very large scale, and was most solidly constructed.

373. We have thought it necessary to give the above succinct account of the architecture of Spain, which did not, however, produce, after the revival of the arts in Europe, any works, except in respect of dimensions, comparable with those of Italy. The abuses in them are almost universally carried to an extent scarcely credible; it is, therefore, useless to refer the reader or student to them as models. It almost seems as if from Italy pure architecture had not had time to spread itself before it became tinctured with the corruptions of Burromini; which, not only in Spain and Portugal, but throughout Germany, and even France, were diffused with incredible rapidity. Llaguno and Cean-Bermudez, Noticias de los Arquitectos, &c., de España, 4 vols. 4to., Madrid, 1829. G. E. Street, Some Account of Gothic Architecture in Spain, 8vo., 1865.

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SECT. XX.

RUSSIAN ARCHITECTURE.

374. WE scarcely know whether we are justified in making a short section with this heading, inasmuch as there is not known to us, up to the end of the eighteenth century. the name of a single Russian architect. English, French, Italian, and German artists have been employed in the decoration of the city of Petersburg, though we believe that the nation is now beginning to produce persons capable of conducting their public works. Russia has received all its improvement from abroad, and has used every exertion to communicate it to an uncivilised people.

375. The ecclesiastical architecture of Russia is of course coeval with the introduction of Christianity into the country, which was not earlier than the time of Vladimir the Great, although the Princess Olga had been baptized at Constantinople as early as the year 964. Vladimir, to display his zeal in behalf of Christianity, had a church, supposed to be the first built by him, erected at Cherson; a year after which the church of St. Basil, which, as well as the first named, was of timber, was erected under his command. This prince also built a church at Kief, where, it is said, there were already at the time 500 churches. After Vladimir, Prince Yaroslaf appears to have bestowed great attention on the erection of ecclesiastical edifices. At Kief he founded a church, dedicated to St. Sophia, and at Novogorod another to the same saint: these partly exist in the present day. By him also were reared the convents of St. George and St. Irene. The celebrated convent of Petchorsky, at Kief, was erected in 1075, subsequent to which period the Russian metropolitans continued subject to those of Constantinople till the capture of that city by Mahomet the Second. Between this last capital and Kief the bonds of amity of their rulers were drawn closer by many intermarriages; but in the year 1124 a fire desolated the latter city, which must have risen into great importance, inasmuch as 600 churches and monasteries were destroyed in the conflagration. Afterwards, again, in the civil war under Yisaslaf, Kief was taken and fired; a calamity to which it was again subject at the same period that Constantinople was taken by the Venetians. After this Kief never again recovered its ancient magnificence. In 1154, at which period Moscow is first mentioned in history, it was but an insignificant village. It received great additions under Daniel of Moscow; and in 1304, under John Danielowitz, it became the capital of the empire. On the 4th of August, 1326, the first stone was laid of a church in the Kremlin there in honour of the Assumption of the Virgin. The palace of the Kremlin was a timber structure until the reign of Demetri Donskoi, when it was reconstructed of stone. On the capture of Constantinople by Mahomet the Second, the Russian church ceased to be dependent on that of Constantinople. The palace of the Kremlin, known by the name of the granite palace, rose in 1487; and, in twelve years afterwards, the Belvedere palace was raised. Ivan IV., whose sway was of extended duration, was a great patron of the arts; his decease took place circa 1584. He renewed the laws relative to the paintings in the new churches, whence arises their so close resemblance to each other that it is difficult to judge of the epochs of their execution. The celebrated clock tower Ivan Valiki, at the Kremlin, was erected by the Czar Boris, in 1600, at which time Moscow contained 400 churches, whereof 35 stood in the Kremlin alone. After the time of Peter the Great, a change of style was introduced, (1696-1725).

376. The Church of the Assumption above mentioned, as respects the plan, is an oblong square divided; the vaulting whereof is supported by six columns in the interior. Though at the first glance it be not perceived, the arrangement of the cupolas soon points to the form of a Greek cross. In the earlier churches the plan was a square, with a porch in front of it; but, in the Church of the Assumption, the porch is a portion of the church, the arches of the cupolas being placed in the same way as if the church were of the ancient form. The six columns just mentioned divide the church into four parts, from east to west, and then from north to south. At the eastern sides are three apsides, divided by the width of a column, the middle one being of larger dimensions than the other two; an arrangement which prevails in most of the Greek churches. The apsides contain altars, which are frequent, except in the small chapels. The altar in the Greek church is not exposed to public view; it is concealed or covered by the iconostasis (image-bearer), a very large screen, which, from occupying the whole width of the church, divides it into two parts. This screen has a central principal and two side smaller doors; behind which latter, on each side, stands a second and smaller iconostasis, of the width only of the smaller apsis, but whose plan with three doors and an altar behind is similar to the great one. This was the distribution in the early churches; but, in the more modern ones, there are, at nearly the extremity of the edifice, three distinct iconostases. The place for the choristers is on each side in front of the iconostasis, between its principal and side doors. The principal cupola rises in front of the iconostasis; and, in cathedral churches, at the foot of the apsis on the left a canopy is placed for the emperor, opposite whereto is one for the metropolitan.

There is generally one principal and four subordinate cupolas round it, which stand on the four feet of the Greek cross. The iconostasis is a principal object in every church. It is usually in four or five horizontal compartments, cach containing an unequal number of pictures of saints painted on tablets or long square panels, whose places are fixed with great precision. In the first story, if we may so call it, are the three doors; the centre one, being in two foldings, is decorated with the subject of the Annunciation, accompanied with the heads of the four Evangelists or their emblems. To the right of the door is a picture of Christ, and of the Madonna on the left. To the right of the Christ is the saint or festival of the church, after which the doors are inserted. Above the doors, on the left hand, is placed a Greek cross; on the right hand the cross of Moses, - as symbols of the Old and New Testaments. The paintings are all on a ground of gold. In the middle of the second story is Christ on a throne; on the right Saint John the Baptist; on the left the Madonna without Child; then, on each side, two archangels and six apostles. In the third story or horizontal compartment, the Madonna is introduced with the Infant on her knees, surrounded on each side by the prophets. In the fourth story is painted God the Father on a throne, with the Infant Jesus, surrounded on each side by patriarchs of the church. Occasionally a fifth story appears, upon which is painted the history or Passion of our Saviour. Paintings on a gold ground abound in the other parts of the church. The exteriors of these churches are extremely simple; cornices or other horizontal crownings are not to found, but the coverings follow the cylindrical forms of the arches to which they are the extradoses, and are variously painted. The Russian churches built in the eleventh century, which from the number of their cupolas resemble, and indeed were imitated from those of the East, give a peculiar effect to the architecture. The forms of these cupolas are varied, but they generally stand on an octagonal tambour; some are hemispherical, others in curves of contrary flexure, and a number of other figures.

377. The type of the Russian church, which is on plan a Greck cross, is to be found in Santa Sophia at Constantinople. After the disputes between the Iconoclasts and Iconolaters, which, at the close of the seventh century, ended in the separation of the Eastern and Western churches, sculpture of statues disappeared from the Greek church, statues of angels excepted. Again, at this period, the altars on the side of the principal one were established, not, as in the Catholic churches, at the extremities of the transepts; their place is always in a niche or apsis. This arrangement is found in the churches of the eleventh, twelfth, and thirteenth centuries, at Bari, Trani, Malfetta, Otranto, &c., while the Greek worship existed; and a similar disposition is even seen at Palermo and other places where the worship has been Catholic. In the Catholic churches a sacristy, for the use of the priests in robing, &c., is always provided on the side of the church; in the Greek church, however, the priests robe themselves behind the iconostasis on the left of the altar, another altar being placed on the right for the consecration of the elements; and this arrangement exists in the present day. The Greek church has no gynæceum, or separate place for the women. For the above we are indebted to the researches of M. Hallmann, an ingenious architect of Hanover.

378. It is in Saint Petersburg principally that we are to look for edifices which deserve mention. The foundation of the city was laid in 1703, by the Czar Peter, when he constructed a fort on an island in the Neva for defence against the Swedes. Buildings, both public and private, were soon erected; and the nobility and merchants being induced to settle there, the place quickly assumed the appearance of a considerable city. In the reigns of Catherine the Second and Alexander it reached a degree of great magnificence, from which it has not declined, but has rather advanced. Magnitude, rather than beauty of form, marks the public buildings of the city. The church of our Lady of Kazan is of great dimensions: for which, and its fifty-six granite columns with bronze capitals, it has obtained more celebrity than it will acquire for the beauty of its composition. Some of the palaces in the eity are of colossal dimensions; that of Michailoff, built by Paul, is said to have cost ten millions of rubles. It was under the reign of Peter the Great that the great change took place in the national character of Russian church architecture by the introduction of the classical orders. The bulbous cupola, though at this period not entirely laid aside, fell into comparative disuse, being replaced by a green painted dome of which the Italian form was the model. The tasteless custom of painting the exteriors of buildings with bright and incongruous colours was retained; and, though well enough suited to the barbaric structures of the Muscovite czars, it ill accorded with the purer style of Italy. It is unnecessary further to detain the reader by any observations on the churches of the modern capital. In point of style or of history, they possess little or no interest for an English reader. those who wish to become better acquainted with the architecture of Russia, we recommend a reference to Geissler's Tableaux Pittoresques des Maurs, &c. des Russes, Tartares, Mongoles, et autres Nations de l'Empire Russe; to Lyall's Character of the Russians, &c., 4to, 1823; and Ricard de Montferrand's L'Eglise de S. Isaac, fol. 1845. The essay by the late M. Hallınan above noticed, was printed in the Transactions of the Institute of British Architects, 1842.

Το

CHAP. III.

ARCHITECTURE OF BRITAIN.

SECT. I.

EARLY HOUSES AND ARCHITECTURE OF THE BRITONS.

379. On the invasion of Britain by Julius Cæsar, in the year 55 B. C., the inhabitants dwelt in houses resembling those of Gaul; and in Kent, and other southern parts of the island, their houses were more substantial and convenient than those in the north. Caves or earth houses seem to have been their original shelter; to which had preceded the wicker enclosure, whose sides were incrusted with clay. These were thatched with straw. The wooden houses of the ancient Gauls and Britons were circular, with high tapering roofs, at whose summit was an aperture for the admission of light and emission of smoke. These, where the edifices were grander than ordinary, were placed upon foundations of stone. There is no instruction to be derived from pursuing this subject further. That the arts at the period in question scarcely existed, is quite certain; and Caractacus may, when carried prisoner to Rome, have well expressed surprise that the Romans, who had such magnificent palaces of their own, should envy the wretched cabins of the Britons.

380. If the Britons were so uninformed in architecture as to be satisfied with such structures for their dwellings as we have named, it will hardly be contended that they were the builders of so stupendous a fabric as Stonehenge. On this subject we have already stated our opinion in Chap. II. From the distant period at which we believe this and similar edifices to have been erected up to that of which we are speaking many centuries must have elapsed, during which the mechanical knowledge which was employed in their erection might have been lost, and indeed must have been, from the condition of the inhabitants, of which mention has been made.

381. The Romans, after their invasion of the island, soon formed settlements and planted colonies; and it is not difficult to imagine the change which took place in its architecture. The first Roman colony was at Camalodunum. This, when it was afterwards destroyed by the Britons in the great revolt under Boadicea, appears to have been a large and wellbuilt town, adorned with statues, temples, theatres, and other public edifices. (Tacit. Annal. lib. xiv. c. 32.) In the account given of the prodigies said to have happened at this place, and to have announced its approaching fall, it is mentioned that the statue of Victory fell down without any visible violence; in the hall of public business, the confused murmurs of strangers were perceived, and dismal howlings were heard in the theatre. At Camalodunum the temple of Claudius was large enough to contain the whole garrison, who, after the destruction of the town, took refuge in it; and so strong was it, that they were enabled to hold out therein against the whole British army for a period of two days. London, however, exhibited a more striking example of the rapid progress of Roman architecture in Britain. At the time of the first Roman invasion it was little more than a British town or enclosed forest; and there seems to be ground for supposing that at the time of the second invasion, under Claudius, it was not much improved. But when, about sixteen years afterwards, it came into the possession of the Romans, it became a rich, populous, and beautiful city. Not only did the Romans raise a vast number of solid and imagnificent structures for their own accommodation, but they taught the arts to the Britons, and thus civilised them. Agricola, of all the Roman governors, took means for that purpose. That they might become less and less attached to a roaming and unsettled life, and accustomed to a more agreeable mode of living, he took all opportunities of rendering them assistance in erecting houses and temples, and other public buildings. He did all in his power to excite an emulation amongst them; so that at last they were not content without structures for ornament and pleasure, such as baths, porticoes, galleries, banqueting houses, &c. From this time (A. D. 80) up "to the middle of the fourth century," says Henry (Hist. of England), " architecture, and all the arts immediately connected with it, greatly flourished in this island; and the same taste for erecting solid, convenient, and beautiful buildings which had long prevailed in Italy, was introduced into Britain. Every Roman colony and free city (of which there was a great number in this country) was a little Rome, encompassed with strong walls, adorned with temples, palaces, courts, halls, basilicæ, baths, markets, aqueducts, and many other fine buildings both for use and ornament country every where abounded with well-built villages, towns, forts, and stations; and the whole was defended by that high and strong wall, with its many towers and castles, which reached from the mouth of the river Tyne on the east to the Solway Firth on the west.

The