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century, at Pisa (fig. 271), exhibits the local peculiarity of three stories, composed really, or in appearance, by three piers and two arches. This is common. A fourth story sometimes shows its windows under the arches; but generally is an independent addition

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Fig. 272.

ELEVATION OF THE PALAZZO BUONSIGNORI, SIENA.

Fig. 271. HOUSE AT PISA.

to the design. At the level of each floor are put-log holes for the wooden cantilevers of the balconies, perhaps more properly the tettoje or pent-house roofs, which will be noticed in the examples from San Gimignano. The palazzo Buonsignori at the end of the via di San Pietro at Siena belongs to 'the brickwork of the 13th century; the façade is about 56 ft. long, and consists, on each upper floor, of seven bays, four of which are given in fig 272. A fountain in the piazza Carlano at Viterbo might serve as a type of several others designed in this century.

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615. To the end of the 13th and early part of the 14th centuries belongs the cathedral at Orvieto, one of the most interesting examples of Italian Gothic, and an instance of the use, internally as well as externally, of alternate courses of colour, which in this case is produced by black basaltic lava and yellowish-grey limestone. Although the first stone was laid 1290 for the execution of a design by L. Maitani, who had just completed the front of the duomo at Siena and built this cathedral (fig. 273.) before his death, 1330, the works were in hand till the end of the 16th century. A list of thirtythree architects has been preserved. The building is 278 ft. long by 103 ft. wide, and 115 ft. high to the plain ceiling, made 1828, which rests on piers 62 ft. high. These piers are fronted by statues of the apostles, 9 ft. 6 in. high, on pedestals that are 5 ft. 6 in. high above the floor of the nave, which is made of Apennine red marble that has inlaid fleurs-de-lis

before the choir. The windows have coloured glass in the upper parts, but diaphanous alabaster below it.

616. To the same period belong the church of Sta. Maria sopra Minerva, at Rome, the only pointed edifice which we can name in that metropolis; and the principal examples of pointed art in Florence, such as the church of Sta. Maria Novella, 1278-1357; the church of Sta. Croce, 1294, used 1320, but not consecrated till 1442; the cathedral, 1294, consecrated 1436, with the campanile, designed 1332, by Giotto; the church of San Ercolano, by Bevignate, 1297-1335, at Perugia, with that of Sta. Giuliana, 1292, outside that city; the octagonal baptistery called San Giovanni Rotondo, 1337, and portions of the church of San Francesco, 1294, at Pistoia; and the (then altered) brick and stone church of San Fermo Maggiore, at Verona. In the first half of the 14th century, the Italian artists exhibited their ideas of Gothic work in the chapel of Sta. Maria dell'Arena, 1303, at Padua; the alterations, 1308-20, of the interior of the cathedral at Lucca; the cathedral, 1312, at Prato, which has the effect of a northern late pointed structure; the fine cathedral, 1325-48, and the church of San Secondo, at Asti; and the church of San Martino, 1332, at Pisa, which is a fair specimen of common late Italian Gothic.

617. The large number of tombs and monuments of this and the next period, with pointed arches, renders difficult any choice of single examples among them; those of the Scaligeri, at Verona, especially that of Mastino II., 1351, contain a history in themselves.

618. To the latter half of the 14th century may be attributed the marble front, in grey and yellow courses, by Matteo da Campione, (a very fine example) before 1396 to the brick cathedral with particularly good detail, more than usually Gothic, built 1290-1390, at Monza; the palazzo della comunita, 1294-1385; and the palazzo pretorio, 1357–77, at Pistoia, which have been highly praised as fine specimens of very perfect Italian Gothic; the cathedral, 1315-1415, at Sarzana; and 1340 to 1369-1423, the upper portion or sala del consiglio of the ducal palace at Venice, although another authority considers that the work of this period was the loggia towards the canal and twelve columns on the piazzetta.

619. The general design of the existing cathedral at Milan is also of this period, although extreme doubt exists as to the date of the commencement of the work. But the statements are clear that the capitals of the great piers were being prepared, 1394-5, and that the piers themselves were being erected 1401. The records of the wardens of the church are deficient until 1387; in that year an official paper speaks of the building which "multis retro temporibus initiata est et quæ nunc fabricatur." Chronicles and an inscription concur in fixing March 15, 1386, as the date of commencement; but Simone da Orsenigo, probably an eye-witness of the facts to which he is evidence, stated that the work was begun May 23, 1385, but was destroyed, and that the existing structure was commenced May 7, 1387. He was employed as one of the architects at least as early as December 6, in that year. So that the date, 1336-87, usually given, as in the previous editions of this book, is possibly the period of attempts to begin the work, and explains the phrase "multis temporibus." The cathedral has been much praised as an example of northern art modifying itself to suit the southern climate under the hands of a German or, at all events, of a foreigner rather than of a native; but facts seem to destroy this imputed credit. The official list of the "ingegneri," as the chief artists who laboured at the duomo were called, shows the earliest employment of foreigners in the case of Nicolas Bonaventure, of Paris. from July 6, 1388, till his dismissal, July 31, 1591; and the same evidence seems to divide the merit of the earliest direction of the works between Marco and Jacopo, both of Campione, a village between the lakes of Lugano and Como. The first name in the records of 1387 is that of Marco, supposed to be the Marco da Frisone who was buried July 8, 1890, with great honours; Jacopo occurs March 20, 1388, having apparently been engaged from 1378 as one of the architects to the church of the Certosa, near Pavia; he died 1398.

620. The official notes of the disputes that were constantly arising between the contemporaneous "ingegneri-generali " and their subordinates, and the foreign artists, even record the fact that the Italian combatants disagreed on the great question of proportioning the building by the foreign system of squares, or by the native theory of triangles. If there be any merit in a work that was so clearly the offspring of many minds, much of it must be due to the wardens, who seem to have ordered the execution of little that was not recommended by the majority of their artists, or, in case of an equal division, by an umpire of reputation from some other city. From 1430, the names of Filippo Brunellesco and six or seven other artists precede the notice, 1483, of Johann von Grätz, who appears to have been invited for the purpose of constructing the central tiburio or lantern. As usual, the foreigner's work was conden:ned; and April 13, 1490, Giovanni Antonio Omodeo (Heinrich von Gmunden, employed so early as from Dec. 11, 1391, to May 31, 1392, was confused with Omodeo by M. Millin, whence the repute of Heinrich as "Zamodia"), began his long rule over the other artists, which lasted until August 27, 1522, by executing the present work. It is needless to give the names of his colleagues and successors until the appointment of Carlo Amati, 1806, under whom the completion of the works, including the three pointed windows of the front, was resumed, and of his successor P. Pestagalli, 1813.

621. The cathedral (fig. 274,) is constructed of white marble. The plan is a Latin cross, the transepts extending but little beyond the walls of the church. From west to east its length is 490 ft. and its extreme breadth 295 ft. The length of the fiveaisled nave is 279 ft. and its width 197 ft. The transepts are three-aisled. The eastern end of the church is terminated by three sides of a nonagon. The architecture of the doors and windows of the western front is of the Italian or Roman style, and was executed about 1658. for the first three bays of the nave were an addition in front of the original façade, and were not vaulted until 1651-69. About 1790 the wardens determined to make the front Gothic, keeping the doors and windows by Ricchini, from designs by Pellegrini, on account of the richness of their workmanship; its apex is 170 ft. from the pavement. The central buttresses are 195 ft high. The central tower, 1762-72, by F. Croce, rises to the height of 400 ft., being in All the turrets, but

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Fig. 274.

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CATHEDRAL AT MILAN.

general form similar to those which appear in the western façade. tresses, and pinnacles are surmounted with statues. The roof is covered entirely with blocks of marble fitted together with great

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622. The only town in Italy which has preserved so many as twelve of the mediæval domestic towers of great height, is San Gimignano; it possesses, also, several houses that were erected in the 13th and 14th centuries. The casa Buonaccorsi, with a single opening on the ground-floor, is a corner house and is attributed to the earlier period; the casa Boni is next to it, and belongs to the later time; they are shown in fig. 275, which is too small to express the bandings of red and white brickwork, and the stucco border to the extrados of each arch; the penthouse roofs, here restored, were suppressed in the 14th century. The village of Coccaglio, between Bergamo and Brescia, is said to contain some valuable remains of domestic architecture. The Venetian palaces of this and the following century have been so efficiently illustrated of late years, that it becoines unnecessary to describe their appearance.

623. Many architects have been engaged upon the marble cathedral at Como; from 1396, when L. de' Spazi was employed, down to the last century. The cupola or dome was completed about 1732, by Juvara. The three doors are in the richest Lombard style, and hence the rest of the facade (fig. 276.) has been called early Italian Gothic; but it was designed, 1460, by Lucchino da Milano, and completed between 1487 and 1526 by T. Rodario, of Maroggio, whose design for other parts was altered, perhaps not improved, by C. Solaro. The other sides of the exterior are renaissance work by Rodario, who added the canopies for the statues of the two Plinys, in the west front. The transepts and choir internally are renaissance; but the nave and aisles are Italian Gothic.

624 Amongst the structures produced in the 15th century, may be named the church of Sta. Maria della Grazie, 1399-1406, about six miles from Mantua; the beautiful cathedral, 1450. at Prato; the equally fine church of Sta. Anastasia, at Verona, which has been called the noblest of the distinctively Italian pointed churches in the north of Italy; that of San Bernardino, 1452, also at Verona; and the cathedral, 1467, at Vicenza. The church of San Agostino, at Bergamo; the highly interesting, because perfectly untouched, castle at

Bracciano; the façade and cortile of the palace of Cardinal Vitelleschi, now the hotel palazzaccio, at Corneto; the west front of the church of Sta. Maria in Strada, a most elaborate work in brick and

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terra-cotta, and the church of the dominicans, at Monza; all belong to the last period of Italian Gothic. The nave of the church of Sta. Maria delle Grazie, at Milan, is pointed, and dated 1465, while the transepts and choir are thirty years later, and are renaissance work. The church of Sta. Maria Maggiore, at Città del Castello, belongs to the 15th, but was finished in the 16th, century. The church of San Agostino, at Ancona, is transitional; like that at Montenegro, 1450; and that of the Madonna di Monte Luce, at Perugia. The last idea of Gothic art absorbed by the new style, is seen in the Colleone chapel, 1475; and in the church of Sta Maria Maggiore, at Bergamo, where the sacristy, 1430, offers one of the earliest dated examples of the modern style. There is scarcely a street in Città della Pieve without numerous cases of pointed door

ways and windows walled up Fig. 276.

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ELEVATION OF CATHEDRAL, COMO.

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to suit the return to what are commonly, but incorrectly, called classical notions. 625. Such are the chief structures in the northern half of Italy, of which a critic so highly esteemed as Professor Willis does not hesitate to affirm that, there is in fact no genuine Gothic building." The same author observes that, "it is curious enough that in the Neapolitan territory, in Naples especially, many specimens or rather fragments, of good Gothic buildings are to be found which were executed under the Angevine dynasty, 12661435; with this exception I do not believe that a single unmixed Gothic church is to be found in Italy." Others follow his judgment, and accept, as specimens of imitative Gothic art, edifices which they themselves describe as impure and heterogeneous, and impressed with the stamp of classical, romanesque, byzantine, and saracenic influences. To this praise of the churches may be added that of two or three palazzi at Naples; the campanili at Amalfi, and Veletri; the castles at Andria, Castellamare, and Teano, some houses of the 14th and 15th centuries, at Aquila, Popoli, and Solmone, with the aqueduct at the latter place; and the monastery of Sta. Catherina, at Galatino.

626. The cathedral at Trani must be regarded as falling within the ban under which the structures termed "Gothic," in Sicily, are regarded by the purist in archæology. The pointed byzantine style, which is called Siculo-Norman, lasted until 1282; it was transitional in the sense of receiving greater enrichment of a Greek character, until the end of the 14th century; and although further change began in the 15th century, taste did not take any decided direction until the establishment of renaissance art. M. Gally Knight, who investigated the indications presented in the great work published by Messrs. Hittorff and Zanth, says that "various novelties were attempted; sometimes the forms were circular, sometimes square, and sometimes elliptic. Amongst other novelties, the pointed style of the north was introduced, with its projecting mouldings and a little of its tracery; but later in Sicily than anywhere else; and though something of its true spirit is caught in the reconstructions of Maniaces, in Syracuse, yet in Sicily, it always appears an exotic." These facts seem, to Mr. Freeman, to prove incontestibly that the pointed style of Sicily, of that portion of western Christendom in which the systematic use of the pointed arch first occurred, is not Gothic even in the sense of being the most distant transition. A few churches and palaces at Palermo, Syracuse, and Taormina, of the 14th century; and in the same cities, with Girgenti and Messina, of the 15th century, would be nearly all that could be named as important examples before the renaissance was employed. The date, 1592, however, appears to be that of the elliptic arches, groined roof, and flamboyant parapet at the entrance to the church of Sta. Maria della Catena, at Palermo.

627-873. We here, with regret, leave the subject, because we have already trespassed beyond the limits prescribed.

BOOK II.

THEORY OF ARCHITECTURE.

CHAP. I.

MATHEMATICS AND MECHANICS OF CONSTRUCTION.

SECT. I.

GEOMETRY,

874. Geometry is that science which treats of the relations and properties of the boundaries of either body or space. We do not consider it would be useful here to notice the history of the science; neither is it necessary to enter into the reasons which have induced us to adopt the system of Rossignol, from whom we extract this section, otherwise than to state that we hope to conduct the student by a simpler and more intelligible method to those results with which he must be acquainted.

The limits of body or space are surfaces, and the boundaries of surfaces are lines, and the terminations of lines are points. Bounded spaces are usually called solids, whether occupied by body or not; the subject, therefore, is naturally divided into three parts,-lines, surfaces, and solids; and these have two varieties, dependent on their being straight or curved.

875. Geometrical inquiry is conducted in the form of propositions, problems, and demonstrations, being always the result of comparing equal parts or measures. Now, the parts compared may be either lines or angles, or both; hence, the nature of each method should be separately considered, and then the united power of both employed to facilitate the demonstration of propositions. But the reader must first understand these Definitions. 1. A solid is that which has length, breadth, and thickness. A slab of marble, for instance, is a solid, since it is long, broad, and thick.

A leaf of paper,

idea of a surface. As in the case of

2. A surface is that which has length and breadth, without thickness. though not in strictness, inasmuch as it has thickness, may convey the 3. A line is that which has length, but neither breadth nor thickness. a surface, it is difficult to convey the strict notion of a line, yet an infinitely thin line, as a hair, may convey the idea of a line: a thread drawn tight, a straight line.

This

4. A point is that which has neither length, breadth, nor thickness.
5. If a line be carried about a point A, so that its other extremity
passes from B to C, from C to D, &c. (fig. 223.), the point B,
in its revolution, will describe a curve BCDFGLB.
curve line is called the circumference of a circle. The circle is
the space enclosed by this circumference. The point A, which,
in the formation of the circle is at rest, is called the centre.
The right lines AC, AD, AF, &c. drawn from the centre to the
circumference, are called radii. A diameter is a right line which
passes through the centre, and is terminated both ways by the
circumference. The line DAL, for example, is a diameter. An
arc is a part of a circumference, as FG.

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6. The circumference of a circle is divided into 360 equal parts, called degrees; each degree is divided into 60 parts, called minutes, and each minute into 60 parts, called seconds. 7. Two right lines drawn from the same point, and diverging from each other. form an opening which is called an angle. An angle is commonly expressed by three letters, and it is usual to place in the middle that letter which marks the point whence the lines diverge; thus, we say the angle BAC or DAF (fig. 224.), and not the angle ABC or ACB.

A

Fig. 224.

B

N

R

M

Fig. 225.

8. The magnitude of an angle does not depend on the lines by which it is formed, but upon their distance from each other. How far soever the lines AB, AC are continued, the angle remains the same. One angle is greater than another when the lines of equal length by which it is formed are more distant. Thus the angle BAL (fig. 223.) is greater than the angle CAB, because the lines AB, AL are more distant from each other or include a greater arc than the lines AC, AB. If the legs of a pair of compasses be a little separated, an angle is formed; if they be opened wider, the angle becomes greater; if they be brought nearer, the angle becomes less.

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