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to 2 of clean sharp sand after each layer, until the walls are completed in height. The grout to be made as mortar first, and then thinned with water to the necessary consistence.

V. The concrete to be well and thoroughly bound together, so as to secure the complete adhesion of the materials and work during its progress.

VI. The thickness of walls to be equal, at the least, to the thicknesses for brickwork prescribed in the Building Act.

VII. Suitable cores to be used for flues, and also for recesses.

stoneware or fireclay pipes, not less than half an
properly pargeted.

VIII. Door and window frames to be built into the walls.

Flues to be formed with inch in thickness, unless

IX. The portions of the party walls and chimney stacks above the roofs of buildings to be rendered externally with Portland cement.

X. The rules of the Metropolitan Building Act, 1855, as to the use of timber in walls, and other rules of that Act, so far as they may be applicable to concrete buildings, are to be observed.

1903w. This concession was made after many attempts to obtain it, by Philip Brannon, by Tall, Drake, and others. Mr. Wonnacott read a paper in 1871, On the Use of Portland Cement Concrete as a Building Material, which enters fully into the merits and demerits of this construction. It was supplemented by another paper, Remarks on Concrete Building, by A. W. Blomfield, who summarises the whole thus: The chief advantages are, I. Cheapness; II. Strength and durability; III. Rapidity of construction; Ïv. Economy of space. The chief drawbacks are: I. Its liability to failure, from the use of improper materials, or from the want of knowledge and proper care, or from the wilful misuse of good materials; II. The limits which the material and method of construction impose on architectural design and decoration.

1903x. J. Tall advertises concrete construction for cottages; door and window frames. Drake and Co., concrete building apparatus ; dovetailed self-fixing building slabs; marle and granite facing bricks; fireproof floors, doors, staircases, wall tiles, &c.; window heads, copings, terminals, steps; marble concrete baths. W. H. Lascelles has, panelled slabs and concrete backings screwed to stud work; walls built of Potter's patent cement slabs; plain and moulded concrete forms of all varieties in building and ornamentation, as window sills, door jambs, gables; concrete ceilings; and chimneypieces. The Eureka Concrete Company has steps, sills, strings, balusters, fireproof floors, mantelpieces, thresholds; copings; a concrete door of four panels, hung in position and fitted with leck. Faija's concrete, hardened by his new patent process. J. Wright and Co. have made an 'improved concrete lintel," having a curved upper surface and a T iron passing through it lengthways; with their fixing block inserted to receive the sash or door frame. See also par. 1864; and ARTIFICIAL STONE.

1903y. In 1887 Mr. W. Simpson read a paper before the Royal Institute of British Architects entitled Mud Architecture, relating many methods of construction of similar materials in various countries; further interesting references were made in the discussion and correspondence of that year.

1903aa. CONCRETE AND CEMENT BLOCKS. Blocks formed of Roman cement, puzzuolana, lime, and sand, were soon suggested for such a purpose. Those made without the cement were found to be longer in setting, but eventually became the strongest. To these combinations potsherds were added, as Pliny relates was in use in the time of the Romans; increased toughness resulted. The late Mr. Walker, engineer, possessed specimens of Dutch terras, which had been used in Woolwich dockyard in the reign of George III. These were of very great hardness; in fact, gunpowder had to be used in breaking up the doek where it had been employed. For concrete and mortar for the river wall of the Houses of Parliament he used two measures of sand, 1 of puzzuolana, and 1 of lime. Mr. Lee used Portland cement, Portland stone chippings, sand, and shingle, in blocks in cubes of 16 feet and upwards, made in moulds, for the breakwater at Dover. Mr. Blashfield had made experiments for that work with Lancashire terras mixed with broken tiles and sand; but it was not deemed equal in hardness to the Portland cement concrete blocks. 1903bb. Atkinson's or Mulgrave cement was used by its patentee for concrete blocks of shingle, sand, and cement, used as ashlar stone in the case of a house at the corner of Mount Street, Grosvenor Square, still standing in a substantial condition. Concrete in small blocks, known as Ranger's patent artificial stone, has been used to a limited extent in the construction of domestic buildings. It was employed in the additions to the College of Surgeons, Lincoln's Inn Fields, 1835-6; a guard-house in St. James's Park; the Imperial Assurance Office, in Pall Mall; and in a row of houses in the Western Road, at Brighton, partly in blocks and partly in moulds as pisé work. This process is not continued, probably from the mortar not being properly mixed in the first instance, and the concrete being exposed too soon to the action of the weather, for it dries unevenly, and cracks in all directions.

1903cc. Buckw ll's Granitic Breccia stone was patented about 1858 to compete with brickwork in price, its strength and durability being greater, and its bulk and weight considerably less. It was impermeable to wet and never vegetated, so that for pavements and linings for tanks it appears to have answered well; but for some reason, not ascertained, the manufacture of it was lately given up. It could have been manufactured in a single piece, of a weight varying from 1 cwt. to 60 tons or more; also in slabs from 5 feet to 100 feet superficial; and to any contour. Wheeble's Reading Abby patent concrete stone, formed with Bridgewater stone lime, when made into a brick, was found to be equal in strength to a common stock. Some specimens never attained the strength of concrete except in a case where large gravel or flint was the chief ingredient. Messrs. Bodmer's patent compressed stone bricks, compounded chiefly of 1 part of hydraulic lime and 7 of siliceous sand, well mixed, are subjected to great pressure in moulds. Upon removal, the bricks are piled up in the open air, when induration commences, and the material is converted into stone. They appear to be ready for use after six weeks' to two months' exposure, and experiments show a steady progressive increase in strength as they advance in age. When eleven days old they crushed at 377 tons; at twenty-two weeks from 5 4 to 6.95 tons; and at sixty-three weeks a pressure of upwards of 8 tons was reached without effect.

1903dd. Coignet's Béton Aggloméré has been employed in France in the construction of a church in the park of Vésinet, near St. Germain, from the designs of M. Boileau, and into the construction of which he has also introduced cast and wrought iron. The béton is formed with all the mouldings of Gothic architecture both externally and internally. It was built similar to pisé work, though it is also applicable for blocks, like stone, in which manner he has lately executed some bridges of 140 feet span. The very hard frosts of January, 1865, had not appeared to have had any effect on the béton at the church, which was being executed at the time, and is described in the Builder for November, 1864; views are also given in the volume for 1865. It is stated that such structures cost only about one-half or perhaps one-third of the expense of a stone building, with greater decoration.

1903ee. The system of building with concrete blocks at Sandown, Ventnor, and other places in the Isle of Wight, is weli adapted for constructing walls to ensure dryness. The Llocks are about 18 inches wide by 12 inches high, and are of two thicknesses, those for the outer wall being 4 or 5 inches, and for the inner about 3 or 3 inches thick. These are tied together by pieces of iron, leaving a space of about 3 inches between them. This forms what looks, to those accustomed to the 2 feet thick solid walls of Scotch houses, a flimsy wall, but it appears to be sufficiently strong for carrying another story over the ground floor; and with a few openings above and below for the admission of air into the space between the walls, forms a structure which, in a sanitary point of view, may be considered perfect. Some would prefer to have the inner wall of brickwork.

1903. TABLE OF THE RESISTANCE TO THRUSTING STRESS OF NINE 2-INCH CUBES OF CONCRETE, BEDDED BETWEEN PINE THREE-EIGHTHS OF AN INCH THICK. By D. Kirkaldy, for W. H. Lascelles, May, 1881.

[blocks in formation]

1903gg. The use of concrete has extended from the foundations of buildings, backings of wharfs, retaining walls, and abutments of arches, to the employment of it for the backing of vaults to produce a level surface; for the substance of fireproof floors; for the base of floors, pavements, and roads; for the walls, floors, &c. of houses, bridges, and moles; and various other purposes.

1904. Many ornamental brick cornices may be formed by but little cutting, and changing the position of the bricks employed, and several, indeed, without cutting, by chamfering only. Of late years the machines for making bricks have permitted the extensive use of moulded bricks of different forms, which have entirely superseded the more artistic advantages of cut brickwork to required outlines or ornamental details.

1905. Niches may be formed in brickwork. They constitute the most difficult part of the bricklayer's practice. The centre will be described under the section CARPENTRY. The difficulty in forming them arises from the thinness to which the bricks must be reduced at the inner circle, as they cannot extend beyond the thickness of one brick at the crown or top, it being the usual as well as much the neatest method to make all the courses standing.

1905a. Flues. It has been an established rule to build flues 14 inches by 9 inches, 14 inches square, or larger, for kitchen fireplaces, because it suited the size of the bricks and bonding, contained a sufficient amount of superficial area, and afforded a space for a boy sweeper to ascend them. Since then circular pipe flues, 8, 9, 10, 12 inches diameter, or oblong pipes with rounded corners, have been adopted by many, the inside being smooth. These are easily swept, and no lodgments of soot and brick rubbish take place. An objection has been made, if the pipes be glazed, that during a storm, or other concussion, the soot falls down into the room if the register flap be not shut. These pipes make good work at the gatherings. It is almost an invariable rule to make the flue tho same size throughout; there is also the theory that the flue should be made larger at the top, and also smaller at the top, similar to a factory shaft. Also that a tall-boy is useless, for the top should only be finished by a terminal of a few inches, just sufficient to divide the rushing currents and allow them to pass between each pot. The fireplace should be covered over at the usual springing line by a slab of stone, or concrete, or iron plate, with an aperture in the centre of the size of the intended flue. On this the brickwork is carried up. Above it, in the breast, has been formed a chamber with sloping sides, to counteract any down draught.

19056. A brick flue is pargeted inside to render it smoke proof, that the velocity of the draught should be assisted or improved, and to prevent as far as possible the lodgment and accumulation of soot. The parget, which is a mortar made of a mixture of lime and cow-dung, should be sparingly applied, but sufficient to fill up open joints and all irregularities in the brickwork. If applied thick, it shrinks and cracks, and falls off, and assists in making a chimney smoke. It is now recommended to use the ordinary mortar for this purpose, the brickwork being kept as smooth inside as possible, by careful pointing, as it has been found more successful for a number of years.

1905c. PAVING. When neither slate, granite, Yorkshire or other stone, flint, nor shells, are used for paving, recourse is had to bricks, tiles, and asphalte. A yard superficial of brick paving requires 32 to 36 stocks laid flat; 48 to 52 laid on edge; 36 paving bricks laid flat, 82 on edge; 140 Dutch clinkers on edge; 9 twelve-inch tiles; and 13 ten-inch tiles. Brick paving is laid flat in sand; jointed in mortar; jointed in cement; and laid on edge, in the same manner. Tile paving is generally laid in sand or mortar (par. 22824). Besides the ordinary brick, some others have been introduced, especially for stables and yards, such as the Terro-metallic grooved bricks, and Towers and Williamson's Adamantine clinker paving bricks for stables and yards; it is stated to be superior to the old Dutch clinker in shape, colour, density, and wear (par. 1829). Tebbutt's patent safety brick for stables and yards, &c., is considered to ensure perfect foothold, drainage, easy cleaning, saving in labour and straw, to form a durable floor, and to have a good appearance. Each brick is 5 inches by 10 inches by 24 inches; and the gutter brick is of the same size. Homan's Quartz, Granite and Ferrolithic stone paving, for streets, public buildings, breweries, warehouses, stables, schools, &c. Bernett's improved Granitic stone, for pavements, &c. (1887), is said to be fire, damp, and vermin proof; the surface, though hard and indestructible, is not slippery, it does not absorb moisture, it is laid from 1 to 3 inches in thickness, is unaffected by the weather, and hardens by time. Macleod's Metallic concrete is proof against fire, vermin, damp and frost, not slippery, and can be used for paving, wall linings, roofing, &c. It is very hard, and has been used in stabling, breweries, workshops, &c., from before 1870. Stuart's Granolithic and impenetrable pavement (1869), is very largely employed in this country and abroad. Wilkes' patent metallic paving and Eureka concrete is used at the war office, the firebrigade stations, and police stations. W. B. Wilkinson & Co. patent a specular granitic concrete pavement, which is formed in 15-inch squares of 1 inch thickness, ground perfectly flat, presenting a spotted appearance of red and different shades of grey colours. It may be laid on ordinary mortar, can be used for outside purposes, and is stated to cost less than tiles.

1905d. Ordinary tile paving is made of about 8, 9, 10, 11, or 12 inch tiles, of a hard and well burnt clay. The 11-inch tiles used in the footpaths, which are each 14 feet 6 inches wide, of new Westminster bridge, were made by Blashfield, and were laid diagon

ally (par. 1839). The Staffordshire paving tiles, in blue, red, and buf, are very durable, and for general purposes as effective as the more expensive qualities for inlaid purposes. 1905e. Floors and paths are often finished with a face of inch, 1 inch, or 14 inch of Portland cement. They are considered to be best laid with the cement and sand thoroughly mixed and just wetted sufficient so that a handful pressed by the hand will not fall to pieces when the hand is opened. This laid down, and water brought through it by the hand float, stands well. Plasterers do not like to use it so stiff. To repair any worn places the old cement should be thoroughly wetted before the new work is applied.

1905f. Here may be mentioned the use of encaustic or inlaid tiles for paving; of mosaic tiles and of tessere for mosaic work, whether for pavements or for wall decoration; the Roman mosaic pavement; the Venetian marble mosaic tiles; Italian marble mosaie and marble mosaic granite. There is also a patent wood mosaic, made of small blocks of wood, end grain, and prepared in tiles to pattern 6 inches square.

1905g. To clean dirt off tiles, dilute muriatic acid, i.e. spirits of salts, may be used, but it must all be wiped off, and after washing, the moisture must be wiped off with a clean dry cloth.

1905h. ASPHALTE has now taken the place of most other sorts of manufactured pavements of the same character. A solid foundation is prepared by a bed of concrete of hydraulic lime and gravel, with a layer of finer concrete over it, to fill up the vacuities. When dry, the asphalte is put on, of a thickness for private purposes of about ths of an inch; for public purposes, from one to two inches: it should be applied as hot as possible. A small quantity of pure quick lime is added to the asphalte when in ebullition, to prevent it melting by the heat of the sun. This material has been much used for threshing floors of barns, for malt-houses, armouries, tun rooms (sometimes from 2 to 2 inches thick), dissecting-rooms, dog-kennels, exercising yards, mills of many kinds, granaries, verandahs, and numerous factories and buildings. For carriage traffic, the asphalte is embedded with small Guernsey granite chippings. This material is not suitable for any floor where oil, tallow, or other greasy matter is employed. The Polonceau and Seyssel Asphalte Company indent the surface into small squares, affording a foothold for horses in a stable; this is also considered useful for flat roofs and paving generally. The granite rock and Seyssel asphaltes, for floors, paving, &c., are considered a certain preventive of damp and vermin. The Val de Travers compressed and mastic asphalte, for roadways, &c., roofs, basements, stables, warehouses, breweries, reservoirs, slaughter-houses, markets, laundries, lavatories, &c. The Limmer Asphalte Paving Company, and the Société Française des Asphalte, are also engaged in paving the thoroughfares of London and elsewhere. Wright's marble tar pavement for yards, playgrounds, &c. has been used for the platforms of the Windsor and the Waterloo stations, and in the middle part of the quadrangle of Somerset House.

TILING.

1906. The tiler's tools are- -the lathing hammer, with two gauge marks on it, one at 7 inches, the other at 7 inches. The lathing staff, of iron, in the form of a cross, to stay the cross laths and clinch the nails. The tiling trowel, to take up the mortar and lay it on the tiles; it differs from the brick trowel, in being longer and narrower The bosse, made of wood, with an iron hook, to hang on the laths or on a ladder, for holding the mortar and tiles. The striker, a piece of lath about 10 inches long, for separating and taking away the superfluous mortar at the feet of the tiles. The broom, to sweep the tiling after it is struck.

1907. Tiling is the operation of laying the tiles on a roof for the covering of the building, and is effected with either plain or pan tiles; the former is the most secure description. Plain tiles are laid at different gauges (see par. 2301). 210 plain tiles laid flat will cover a square of tiling, which can be laid in a day by a man and his assistant. As old tiles are of a much better consistency than those now made, it may be desirable to re-use the best of them with new tiles to fill in; in which case the old ones are laid with the best effect in courses, say three or four rows of new and two of old tiles; or laid in a diapered pattern, according to the quantity. Pan tiles are generally pointed in mortar, which if it be not very strong will not stick; in consequence of this, tiled roofs require fresh pointing every few years, especially in exposed situations. A practice has obtained of late years, when plain tiles are set in mortar, not to peg more than about one tile in ten; this should not be permitted, as with the decay of the mortar the tiles slip down. An ancient custom prevailed, to bed the tiles in hay or moss, and when the roof is of the full pitch this suffics without mortar; they may even then be laid dry. But with any less pitch, some precaution must be used to keep out drifting snow, and such wet as may be blown up between the tiles lifted by the force of the wind. In lieu of cak pegs, extra large flat headed wrought nails, made of pure zinc or of zinc and copper, have been used, and it has the advantage of allowing a tile to be replaced from the inside of the roof, by lifting up the others to place in the tile and drop in the nails in a few seconds. The utility of the mortar is questioned in the Builder for 1865.

1907a. Pan tiling is laid to a 10 inch gauge; and 180 pan tiles will cover a square. From the frequent repairs necessary to tiled roofs, slating has become the most useful covering, and is generally employed, except for the most common buildings. See par. 2301, in SRECIFICATIONS.

19076. Weather tiles were fixed either by nailing them to battens or boards, which rotted after about 20 years. Then nailing them to the mortar joints was bad, as a gauge of 3 inches was too small, 4 inches being the ordinary gauge for tiles. Mr. R. Nevill got blocks made 1 inches thick; and generally for the top story of buildings, to run in the inside of the wall two carriers and stretchers and a course of headers. Thus a course was obtained for each course of tiles. Weather tiling ought to be headed between the two tiles, and if they could get close to the wall the little space between the wall and the heading might be filled with cement. The bricks might be used on edge, thus giving a 4 inch height, when the tile could be fixed to the joint. Where the 4 inch gauge would not work, the tiler punched out a small hole at the side of the tile, when this gauge was obtained and the nail driven through the side of the tile: 3 inch French nails were preferable. (E. T. Hall.)

1907c. The bricklayer has often to provide temporary COVERINGS to buildings whilst his other operations are being performed. The commonest method is that of merely nailing old boards laid weather-board fashion to any slope that may be desirable. The next is the use of tarpaulins supported by open boarding, and secured to posts or scaffolding rigged up for the purpose; this must be efficiently done, as in case of high winds the whole may be carried away. Felt is also used for temporary roofs, for which purpose, likewise, Messrs. Rigg and Co. have a new material composed of canvas covered with a waterproofing substance having vegetable oil as a basis, and consequently not liable to the desiccating action of the rays of the sun.

1907d. As the bricklayer has to provide for the removal of water refuse, so he has to provide for the deposit of dust, ashes, and rubbish, by a dust-bia. This was formerly, and is still in many places, built of brick with a wood cover, and is generally more than a nuisance. With the modern arrangements for the periodical removal of dust by the parish or other local authority, the dust-bin need be no other than a galvanised iron receptacle for such ashes or articles as cannot be dried and burnt up in the kitchen or other fire (see SPECIFICATIONS). Burton's Combination Dust-bins are of galvanized iron, and constructed of such a size and shape as to stand side by side, each being removed and emptied separately. They form two, four, six, or eight in a compartment, each being 22 inches high, 21 inches wide, and 14 inches from front to back, or about 3 cubic feet, a sufficient load for one man. When necessary, they can have a wood cover or be enclosed in wood or brick. An improved dust-bin is explained in Builder, 1885, xlvii., p. 779.

1907e. The difficulty and expense of removing this refuse has caused the invention of a refuse destructor on Fryer's principle. One is described lately as having twelve cells, each capable of destroying seven tons of house refuso every twenty-four hours. The smoke from these will pass through a furnace heated to 1500 or 2000 degrees Fahr. before pasing into a shaft 180 feet high. The waste heat from the furnaces will be utilised for a 30 horse-power engine for grinding the clinkers into powder for making concrete slabs. No fuel is required, as the "ashes" provide it. Leeds claims to be the first town to have adopted this invention. Mr. C. Jones, of Ealing, added a maffle furnace between the destructor furnaces and the main shaft, which effectually destroys the offensive properties of the gases and dust from the furnaces.

Terra-Cotta.

1908. The more modern use of this material includes the Persian and Moorish tiles, &c., its use by the Italians during the thirteenth, fourteenth and fifteenth centuries, as at the cities of Milan, Pavia, Padua, Verona, Pisa, Bologna, Brescia, Perugia, Venice, &c.; also in North Germany; many places presenting examples of colour decoration.

1908a. In England specimens of terra-cotta and moulded brickwork appear at Granby Church, Nottinghamshire, where at the east end is a window of considerable size, of Perpendicular date; the whole of the jambs and tracery are composed of contemporary moulded terra-cotta. Layer Marney Hall, Essex, dating 1500-25, supposed of foreign manufacture; Wolterton Manor House, Norfolk, circ. 1500; the tomb of John Young in the Rolls Chapel, London, 1516; medallions at Hampton Court Palace, commenced 1515, perhaps foreign; Sutton Place, Surrey, 1529; Eastbury Manor House, near Ilford, 1575; and other places. Generally it died out with the Tudor family. At the end of the sixteenth century nearly all pottery (except Oriental) had been what is termed soft, and although much of it was coated with a hard and durable enamel not easily injured, yet the body could be generally scratched with a knife. In the seventeenth century stoneware was sought after, and works for its manufacture were established at Stratford-leBow. Elers, from Nuremberg, settled at Burslem.

1908. The first great advance was made by Coade, and, later, Seeley, of Lambeth, who

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