began about 1762 to make statues, bassi-rilievi, &c. About 1825 Rossi made the statues, capitals, antefixæ, and other Grecian ornaments for St. Pancras Church, London, for the Inwoods; and Bubb executed in terra-cotta the frieze of the opera-house in the Haymarket, as also the pedimental sculpture and statues of Cumberland Terrace, Regent's Park. The terra-cotta made by Coade and Seeley was chiefly from the Poole clay, combined with flint and sand. It has withstood heat and frost, and is more perfect than the stonework or cement work around it of the same date, which in some cases has had to be painted to preserve it. Their well-tried ingredients and proportions of clay and siliceous materials, and the degree of vitrification, the essential to the durability of terra-cotta, were adopted by Mr. Pulham. One of the greatest revivals in pottery connected with architecture took place about 1833, when Mr. Wright, of Shelton, obtained a patent for making inlaid tiles, a patent bought by Mr. Herbert Minton, who improved upon it. The churches at Leverbridge, and at Platt, in Lancashire, by the late Mr. Edmund Sharpe, in 1815, were important examples of the revival of the use of terra-cotta.

1908c. At Buckingham Palace, near the stables, were placed, about 1836, several large vases made by Mr. Blashfield; these are in perfect preservation, while the stone coping on which they are placed is decayed. He also turned out some of the best work ever made in this material, as at Dulwich College, 1866, and at Lady Marriane Alford's house at Knightsbridge. The façade of the Science Schools, in Exhibition Road, South Kensington, is a large and florid example. The Natural History Museum at South Kensington, by Mr. Alfred Waterhouse, R.A., is of terra-cotta inside and outside. Mr. R. W. Edis has used it at the Constitutional Club in Northumberland Avenue; and many other buildings of late years show its use. Among those in progress are the new Law Courts at Birmingham, which have been specially designed for its use by Messrs. Webb and Bell. 1908d. In works of art, as in sculpture, the artist has only to model in the clay, as he is obliged to do before he commences to carve out the marble; the clay is at once burned, and all the after labour on the marble or stone is saved. Still it is attended with some risk, for an accident may happen in the burning, and then the modelling has to be redone. Large works should be done in conjunction with the potter, who would supply the proper clay, and see that the thicknesses throughout were as even as possible. The largest piece of sculpture ever executed in terra-cotta was the group of America at the Albert Memorial, executed in 1876 by Mr. John Bell. It consists of five figures, each 10 feet high, with a buffalo of like proportion; it is now at the Smithsonian Institute, Washington. Other similar, or ornamental, work can be finished up at once in clay by the artist, and burned, and are thus never repeated, in the sense of moulded work. Vases, 12 to 15 feet circumference, are made as true on the upper edge as rubbed stone. They have cost less than if they had been moulded and cast in compo or cement, and they have the sharpness of the best carved stone.

1908e. In 1880 it was alleged that English architects had not given to the architectural treatment of terra-cotta the degree of attention and experiment which it deserves. Sir G. G. Scott, in Gothic Architecture, Secular and Domestic, 1857, wrote: "Terra-cotta seems the natural accompaniment of brick, but it should not be used as an artificial stone. It is the highest development of brick, and should be used as such. By a judicious use of brick, moulded as well as plain, encaustic tiles, and terra-cotta, we might develop a variety of constructive decoration peculiarly our own."

cost.

1908f. A writer puts the use of terra-cotta and stone as follows:-"It is argued that it is improper, inartistic, and uneconomical to use terra-cotta constructively so as to imitate stonework, but it is eminently suited for surface decoration and architectural ornamentation, and when so used is capable of high artistic treatment at a moderate Stone is a natural material, and when fixed every part of it does duty constructively. Terra-cotta is an artificial substance; it is but a shell or case, which generally has to be filled up with concrete or brickwork in walling, or with an iron core for a column, or with a girder for a lintel, before it can be used constructively. Terra-cotta used to imitate stonework is inartistic, for stone is worked with the greatest nicety, and fixed with perfect accuracy. With terra-cotta it is not possible, at its best, to secure perfect jointings or straight arrises; there is a monotony of texture in all its plain surfaces, as well as a general inability in the material to acquire additional charm under the influence of the mellowing touch of time. It is not economical to employ terra-cotta in a way to imitate stone constructively. The rough stone is brought to the works, squared, and fixed. The terra-cotta, however, arrives at the works in the form of a hollow body, to be added to before it can be worked in. Stone is easily corrected if it be found inaccurate; whereas for terra-cotta, chipping, cutting, and rasping has to be resorted to, to rectify twisted lines and other inaccuracies; or gaps in a building left for a time until defective or deficient blocks have been manufactured. As it is sent to the works so, probably, the material is fixed generally."

1908g. "Terra-cotta, as a superior sort of brick, has to be designed accordingly, and rsed in string courses, cornices, and such like places, where ordinary bricks so fixed are hable to be affected by the weather; and when manufactured in small pieces, for repeti

tion work, it will come more true, will have a better appearance than when in large blocks, and these will fulfill all constructive requirements; while, as it can be highly decorated at a trifling expense, it can compete favourably with stone similarly used. Without doubt, it is best adapted, both as regards form and colour, for a purely decorative material. It is true there is a great difficulty in combining stone and terra-cotta in the same building effectively; but brick and terra-cotta go well together, and when used legitimately afford the happiest results. Ancient examples show its proper use, but not that as a counterfeiter of stone."-(W. Henman in British Architect, 1887, p. 105).

1908h. For building purposes the great advantage of terra-cotta is the close and absolutely impervious character of the material. Whether the great advantage claimed for it as being impervious to the action of a London atmosphere, of the present day, is well founded or not, will have to be settled by the test of time, but theoretically it should stand better than any stone under the same conditions.

1908. Another writer remarks as follows: "What are the special characteristics of architectural treatment which terra-cotta demands in order to produce a satisfactory architectural and artistic result with the capabilities and peculiar character of the material? There are two points: 1. The size of the pieces is limited, and the material, while incapable of the high finish and precision attainable in stone detail, and still more in marble, possesses, before it goes into the kiln, absolute plasticity; it can be modelled by the hand with great ease and rapidity, and with much variety. Large projections are unsuitable; they cannot be carried out in a pure terra-cotta style, or without assistance, open or concealed, from other materials. Nothing should be attempted in terra-cotta architecture which is not capable of being honestly executed in the material, without the aid of concealed supports and ties. 2. The designer has before him a material capable of endless variety of treatment, and the chief value of which consists in its artistic treatment. If a considerable amount of repeated ornament is required to be economically produced, it can be obtained by a mould more easily than in most materials; and this continuous ornament can be produced by hand with constantly varying detail. The architect or designer may, in fact, be the actual worker of the ornamentation. With this, if s oneware be used, may be a considerable variety of colour, which is not only indestructible, but is susceptible of being cleansed, an important point in the midst of a town atmosphere.

1908). "The first really architectural use of terra-cotta was in the clay plains of North Italy, and it is from the productions of the archite ts of this district that much of the inspiration of the modern terra-cotta designer in architecture has been. or should be, drawn. The earlier specimens are of great simplicity, consisting of the simple moulded brick cornice in two or three projecting rolls one over the other. Later came a gradual elaboration of ornament, especially in cornices, in panels, and on the face of pilasters. At the Certosa, at Pavia, the richness is carried in some parts to its greatest possible extent, and is a good example of the constructive ornamental details, but the whole is too overloaded. On the other hand, in the Church of the Carmine, at Pavia, the ornament is for the most part confined to the cornices and horizontal strings, and is designed so as to bring out some of the best capabilities of the material. The cornice has a flat outline, and a slight projection as compared with its vertical measurement. The main divisions of a Classic cornice are kept in view, while in this is a reminiscence of corona, bedmould, and frieze; the effect which cannot be got by projection is sought by increased depth and by richness of surface ornament. The twisted rope-like string below what may be called the frieze, is easily carved out in a plastic material; it is easy to mould; the same may be said of the ornament above it. Other cornices may be found exhibiting a like treatment.

1908k. "The consideration of the difference which would have to be made in ornamental detail in transferring it from marble or stone to terra-cotta, or painted and glazed stoneware, suggests another influence in the nature of the material which must also affect the ornament executed. However well mixed and burned may be the clay, the shrinkage and twisting in the kiln render it impossible to trust terra-cotta to give the precise, clear, and sharp symmetry of, say, Greek detail. It may be supposed that the manufacturers of the North Italian artists devised the twists to, as it were, soften the resulting twist of their more immature material, as compared with the modern manufac ture, and also in order to avoid the hard straight lines and attempts at symmetrical detail, and to impart such a degree of irregularity in line that accidental irregularities in the manufacture would be the less observable." The writer in the Builder goes on to design, and to explain the modifications he has made in, Greek details, to bring them within the proper scope of terra-cotta, and concludes:

1908. "Another point in regard to the general treatment of the walling of terracotta buildings is that in many of the Cinque-Cento terra-cotta buildings there is an ent re absence of any attempt to obtain a completely homogeneous wall surface. The surface is as varied and broken up in this respect as that of a brick building, thus rather proving again that it is the material for varied and picturesque effect rather than for

symmetrical finish and neatness. It has an appearance of surface treatment about it, which is much more in harmony with the feeling of the Renaissance than of Gothic architecture, in which we look for the appearance of great mass and solidity, rather than of elegant surface ornament. This terra-cotta may offer to architects wishing to carry out a Classic type of design with great modifications, a material admirably suited to the conditions of modern city architecture." (Builder, 1880, vol. xxxix. p. 195, 230.)

1908m. Large and fine works of art, as busts, bassi-rilievi, ornament, &c., have to be modelled and moulded in the usual way by the artist or sculptor. He gradually forms the clay into a rough outline, hollow, in a cellular way, propping his model true until it is quite finished and dry and ready for burning. This is an original terra-cotta. The trouble is great, but is fully compensated by the result. No moulded copy presents such vigour, freshness, and grace. When, also, only one or two pieces are required, as in decoration, they are formed by hand-working on the clay itself, as in the case of sculpture above described. The more widely the knowledge of pottery is diffused, the more certain the architectural potter is to succeed in developing the use of argillaceous and vitreous substances, in the construction of monumental and sylvan works of art. It will be a new branch of work for the genius of the architect; it will improve and advance the study of modelling in all its ramifications; and it will give refinement and taste to the labours of the poorest brickmaker.

1908n. Cornices of great size have been made, and even portions of the shaft of a column 5 feet long. Terra-cotta steps have been advocated, but Messrs. Doulton have refused to make them; they have lately patented a tread (called the Sicilian tread) of great density, which may be used also as a nosing to stone or concrete steps. At South Kensington a flight of steps after two years' wear is still as perfect as when first fixed. Window sills, label mouldings, jambs, water tables, copings, sinks, fire hearths (with massive rounded edge to serve as a fender), stove backs, chimney shafts, &c., could be more elegantly and cheaply wrought in clay than in any other material.

19080. Of late years terra-cotta has been used extensively for the facings and dressings of a building in the place of stone It is generally made of hollow blocks, formed with webs inside so as to give strength to the sides and keep the work true while drying, whereas, when required to bond with brickwork it must be at least 4 inches thick. When extra strength is needed, these hollow spaces are filled with lime concrete, or Roman cement, as Portland cement is liable to swell and burst the terra-cotta. It is able to bear a very heavy crushing weight. A block of about 1 foot cube, without cross webs or filling, at 40 tons splintered at the edges; and at 100 tons it became generally broken, but not crushed, as on being tied with string it remained in shape.

1908p. The putting together of the material requires great care and consideration. The pieces may be flanged and rebated so as to hold together almost without the assistance of mortar. As the outer surface should be almost proof against any ordinary tools, alterations cannot be made as the work proceeds, and the design in detail must be matured before the work be commenced.

1908q. The disadvantages in the use of terra-cotta are neither numerous nor insuperable. Besides the difficulty of getting the blocks true, which is a matter mainly for the manufacturer, the architect has to design his work so as to be suitable to the material. The great difficulty is on the score of the extra time required to prepare the necessary drawings, one set for the builder, and another set made to the shrinkage scale for the manufacturer. These last are now often made by the manufacturer from the full-sized drawings supplied to him. Mr. Charles Barry writes: "Perhaps the most embarrassing of the disadvantages is the arrangement necessary to have the terra cotta blocks made and ready on the ground before the rest of the work is begun, in order to work in where wanted as the bricklayers progress. At times this is found impossible, and annoying delays in the general work take place, for which clients are apt to blame their architect. The lesson, of course, to be learned from this is to carefully mature the design at the outset, instead of contenting ourselves with a mere sketch of what is intended, with the hope and intention of working in parts as time goes on and the work proceeds." 1908r. In good jobs it is recommended that the firing should be done by or under the supervision of one or more persons experienced in the material, and the proper use of suitable cements-Portland cement will split a block in pieces-especially where most strength is required, as considerable additional strength may be gained, which is only acquired by practice. An expert will be more likely to make it work together for good line and fit, by setting and humouring, as the pieces are apt to be taken as they come; and this is especially necessary where small pieces are adopted for simplicity of execution, cheapness, and expedition; time is an object for large pieces to dry, burn, and cool gradually, all essential to good work, and to escape from twisting, hair cracks, &c.

19088. Terra-cotta resists the action of fire. It is used as a protection to ironwork, iron columns, &c., and can be treated artistically. Heat which would destroy stone merely burns the dirt from this material, giving it the appearance of having just left the kiln. At a large fire at Messrs. Doulton's factory the stone sills of the windows

PP

and copings of the walls were destroyed, while the dressings of the windows, which were of their terra-cotta, were perfectly sound and looking all the brighter for the burning.

Colours in Terra-cotta.

1098t. One advantage of the material is the delightful random variety of tone of colour which is often to be obtained. The colour varies, giving an appearance of depth to the work and producing very pleasing effects, at times. This variety is generally produced by the flash of the fire. The natural colours are buff red, and blue, more or less intensified by the amount of heat to which they are subjected. Other colours can be obtained by the admixture of foreign matter. The red terra-cotta of Ruabon is made from a natural red-coloured clay when burnt, very hard and non-porous, with a clean, smooth surface. The buff terra-cotta is a good and sound material, burns hard, and keeps its colour. The pink terra-cotta, a new colour, is made from pure clays, and is without any stain, very hard and durable. By a little additional cost and the operation of a second firing, a soft dull glaze can be put on all terra-cotta bricks, mouldings, and ornaments, so that façades executed in this way could be washed cl.an by water from a fire engine.

1908. The aid of terra-cotta to polychromatic effect is capable of being developed in a very elaborate manner. Variety may be obtained in the unglazed ware by what is called "slipping," or mixing two clays of different tones together in water to produce a third or intermediate tone. In glazed terra-cotta the material can be painted in a great variety of colours, which are then fixed, and at the same time rendered more brilliant in effect. This ware is formed by throwing salt into the fire when the ware is at a white heat, which is decomposed in the form of vapour, the soda suspended in it incorporates itself with the surface of the ware, forming the glaze. Various mineral colours are used, and the main colour is influenced by the fuel: the blue colour of the ancient Rhenish productions is considered to be due to the use of woad. It has been stated (Archæolog a, iii. 112, and Proceedings, xi.) that at Gatacre Old House, near Bridgenorth, "a glazing seems to have been applied to the stone of which the house is built, by some unknown process, after the building was finished, as it covered the joints as well as the stones."

1908v. The intense heat to which glazed ware is subjected, and the consequent difficulty of keeping its true shape, makes its use in this form very difficult. It is comparatively easy in all thrown ware, which, from its circular form, shrinks evenly in all its parts. The liability in all moulded work to warp and twist requires increasing care in all its preparatory stages. That it is not impossible may be ascertained from the saltglazed stoneware in the vestibule of the "Palsgrave," opposite the Law Courts in the Strand. This greater risk seems to necessitate that "its use must be in small pieces, and in such places where absolute flatness of surface is not indispensable; but under these conditions it may be applied with admirable effect to heighten mouldings, or to panel terra-cotta pilasters, or as bases and capitals, especially as shafts to ornamental columns, and as bosses."

1908w. The paper read by the late J. M. Blashfield before the Northampton Architectural Society, Sept. 6, 1859, on Ancient and Modern Pottery; and that by Mr. James Doulton, read April, 1886, at Carpenters' Hall, on Terra-cotta, have also been freely quoted from in the above account.

SECT. III.

MASONRY.

1909. Masonry is the science of preparing and combining stones so as to tooth, indent, or lie on each other, and become masses of walling and arching for the purposes of building. The tools of the mason vary as the quality of the stone upon which they are to act. About the metropolis the value of stone is considerable; and it is accordingly cut into slips and Scantlings by a saw moved horizontally backwards and forwards by a labourer. In those parts where stone is abundant it is divided into smaller scantlings by means of wedges. The principal tools of the mason are the mallet and chisels, the latter being formed of iron, except at the steel end, and the cutting edge being the vertical angle. The end of the chisel struck by the mallet is a small portion of a spherical surface, and projects on all sides beyond the adjoining part or hand hold, which increases in magnitude towards the middle of the tool, to the entering or cutting edge. The other tools of the mason are a level, a plumb-rule, a square, a bevel, with straight and circular rules of divers sorts, for trying surfaces in the progressive states of the work.

1910. In London, the tools used to work the face of a stone are, successively, the point, the inch tool, the boaster (the operation of working with which is called boasting, as that

with the point is called pointing), and the broad tool. The use of the point leaves the stone in narrow furrows, with rough ridges between them, which are cut away by the inch tool, and the whole made smooth by the boaster. The point is from to 3 of an inch broad, the boaster is 2 inches wide, and the broad tool 3 inches at the cutting edge, which in use is always kept perpendicular to the same side of the stone. It performs two sorts of operations. Thus, imagine the impression made by the whole breadth of the tool at the cutting edge, to be called a cavity; in one operation, the successive cavities follow one another in the same straight line, until the breadth or length of the stone is exhausted; successive equidistant parallel lines are then repeated in the same manner, until the tool has passed over the whole surface. This operation produces a sort of fluted surface, and is called stroking. In the other operation, each successive cavity is repeated in new equidistant lines throughout the length or breadth of the stone; then a new series of cavities is repeated throughout the length and breadth of the stone; and thus until its whole length or breadth is gone through. This operation is called tooling. The tools for working the cylin drical and conical parts of mouldings are of all sizes. from of an inch upwards. Those for working convex mouldings are not less than half an inch broad, except the space be too confined to admit of such breadth.

1911. A stone is taken out of winding principally with points, and finished with the inch tool. In London, the squared stone used for facing buildings is usually stroked, tooled, or rubbed. 1912. In those parts of the country where the stone saved by the operation of sawing is not enough to compensate for the labour, the operation is altogether performed with the mallet and chisel.

1913. When stones, previous to the operation of hewing, are very unshapely, a stone axe, jedding axe, scabbling-hammer, or cavil, is used to bring the stone nearly to a shape; one end of the jedding axe is flat, and is used for knocking off the most protuberant angular parts, when less than right angles; the other end is pointed for reducing the different surfaces to nearly the intended form.

1914. In Scotland, besides the above described sorts of work, there are some other kinds, termed droved, broached, and striped. Droving is the same as that called random tooling in England, or boasting in London. The chisel for broaching is called a punch, and is the same as that called a point in England. Broached work is first droved and then broached, as the work cannot at once be regularly done with the punch. Striped work must also be first droved and then striped. If broaching is performed without droving, which is semetimes done it is never so regular, and the surface is full of inequalities. Of the three kinds of surfaces obtained, the droved is the cheapest.

1915. It is, however, to be observed, that the workmen will not take the same pains to drove the face of a stone which is to be afterwards broached, as in that of which the droving is to remain the final finish. When the surface of stone is required to be perfectly smooth, it is accomplished by rubbing with sand or gritstone, and it is called rubbed work. 1915a. Some useful practical remarks for obtaining the face to stone in mediæval work, is given in Denison's Lectures on Church Building, 1856, p. 216. "The mode of working mouldings depends a good deal upon the kind of stone used. In that from Steetly near Worksop, employed almost exclusively outside the new church at Doncaster, and in the Ancaster stone, used for pieces of window tracery and mullions too large for the blocks that can be got from Steetly, and in the Brodsworth stone, the mouldings are all completed with a drag. I do not use the word finished,' because that means going over the work to put a particular kind of surface upon it after it is really completed. On the other hand, the Crookhill stone, of which all the pillars and a few other parts are made, would utterly defy any such small tooth-comb work, as a drag; nothing under a chisel with a heavy hammer will touch it. Again, some stone from Huddlestone is too tough and cheese-like for dragging, and the mouldings in it are completed by shaving them with a chisel, something like wood carving. The effect of that is very good, because a chisel rur along in that way will always make a rather undulating surface, though smooth enough to the touch, even to please the finger of a clerk of the works. In some real Norman arches, which had been covered with plaster for centuries, the mouldings showed that the drag or tool had never been allowed to make the marks directly across; generally they are oblique and sometimes parallel to the direction of the moulding. Worked in this way, the stones will be sure to show themselves distinctly, and the effect of the mortar staining the stones for a little distance from the joints, produces anything but a bad effect. Tuckpointing, to rather rough masonry especially, i.e., making prominent joints in mortar, with the edges cut quite straight and square, is another chance of spoiling work. After a few years this generally splits off," and the building may look at last as it should have done at first. The mortar should be finished within the face of the stone. The stone work at S. Alban's Abbey is described by Mr. Neale, as finished by the are by the Normans; chiseled during the Transition period; bolster tooled during the Early English; claw tooled during the Decorated, and the mouldings scraped; while during the Perpendicular period it is finely scraped.