is in action the water is forced into this air vessel MN, and when its surface, as at ww, rises above the mouth H of the force pipe, the air in the vessel MN is confined above the water; and as the water is gradually forced in, the air, being compressed, acts with increased elastic force on the surface of the water. This pressure forces a column of water up the pipe HG, and maintains it at an elevation proportional to the elastic force of the condensed air. When the air in the vessel MN is reduced to, half its original bulk, it will act on the surface of the water ww with double the atmospheric pressure; meanwhile, the water in the force pipe being subject to merely once the atmospheric pressure, there is an unresisted free upwards equal to the atmospheric pressure which sustains the column of water in the tube, and a column 34 feet high will thus be sustained. If the air is reduced to one-third of its original bulk, the height of the column sustaine will be 68 feet, and so on. If the force pipe G were made to terminate in a ball pierced with small holes, so as to form a jet d'eau, the elastic pressure of the air on the surface would cause the water to spout from the holes.

Fig. 8056.

N

20

2218g. In the formation of all pamps the parts should be nicely fitted, and as air-tight as possible, otherwise, in using them, much of the power employed will be lost. All expedients which tend to this great desideratum are of value. The joint CD, figs. 805 and 805a, is especially liable to leak if not well fitted. The variety of pumps now made is very great, although they are all formed on the principles first explained. The architect had best select the manufacturer, and learn of him the make and powers of the article required for the proposed purpose. Nearly one hundred varieties are shown in Messrs. Tylor and Sons' Illustrated Catalogue for 1885, 14th edition. They consist of a pumping apparatus for public thoroughfares, with cast iron cased well-engine frames, with fly wheel and with one or two handles; pillar well-engine frame and single or double cranks; the same with wheel and pinion to decrease labour; rotary action, fixed on plank; horse wheel frame, for horse power, and others applied to steam power; pumps for artesian wells; lift-pump; vibrating standard lift-pump; and rotary action lift-pump, all on planks, &c.

2218h. The Pulsometer is a patent pump, of great service for foundation and sinking work of all kinds, and for general pumping work; skilled attention is stated not to be required, and it will pump thick gritty water. Norton's Abyssinian and artesian tube wells and pumps are of much service for large and pure water supplies from shallow or deep sources; they are also called driven tube wells.

2218. The Aqueous Works and Diamond Rock Boring Company, Limited, by their method of using black diamonds (or carbonate), are able to bore through hard strata, such as granite; they drive a tube for a well say 25 feet deep; or to a depth say of 1144 feet, having a bore hole 9 inch diameter; or in the case of minerals even to a depth of 1906 feet, as at Battle in Sussex.

2218k. As to water supplied by a company, it will only be needful to refer to the quantity, and to the two systems: I. the ordinary pressure; and II. the non-intermittent or constant supply. A Parliamentary return issued about Midsummer, 1866, states that the New River Company supply was equal to 2095 gallons per house per day; or, taking each tenement to hold five persons, it was equal to 419 gallons per individual per day. The daily supply of water to the metropolis in 1865 by all the companies was nearly 93 millions of gallons, or at the rate of rather more than 200 gallons per house, or over 30 gallons per head. In 1887 the metropolis was supplied by eight companies. The East London supplies a population of 1,180,000 persons; the New River Company, 1,125,000; the Southwark and Vauxhall, 800,000; the Lambeth, West Middlesex, Grand Junction, and Kent, 500,000 each; and the Chelsea, 260,000. The daily 10tal supplied is 179,600,000 gallons, for a population of 5,3-0,000, being an average of rather over 33 gallons per head, and ranging over 725,912 houses.

2218. It may be useful to note that the non-intermittent system, or constant supply, has been adopted at Manchester, Nottingham, Derby, Durham, Leeds, Dundee, Glasgow, Ipswich, Chatham near Rochester, Wolverhampton, Bristol, &c.; the two last are described in Cresy's Encyclopedia of Civil Engineering. At all these places the result appears to be satisfactory in every way, both to the water companies and to the consumers. At Hitchin the average daily consumption was 235 gallons per house; at Croydon, at one time 500; Whitehaven, 250, or 50 per person; York about 200; Exeter, 120; while at Bristol, Rugby, Sandgate, and Barnard Castle, the waste was so great the supply became inadequate. Nottingham had only 20 gallons per person, and Durham 20 to 25. In America, New York has 90 gallons per person; Boston not less than 55. In 1884 it was stated that, taking the daily consumption of water in London at 29 gallons per head, in Paris it was less, while at Berlin it was but 20. At Detroit,

Michigan, it was 100; while at Chicago and Washington it was 119 and 155 gallons respectively.

2219. The third mode of obtaining a supply of water is by the hydraulic ram. It is more available in the country on account of the noise caused by the continual clicking of the valve. It is a simple self-acting machine for raising water into a cistern or tank, where a fall of water can be secured from a stream, or other source. Once set in motion, it will continue to work as long as it is supplied with water, or until the wearing of the iron valve disables it. A fall of only 5 feet to the ram will enable it to supply a tank 60 feet higher than the source and 2,000 yards distant. Much of our present information on the subject of supply of water was known to the Romans, and is carefully described by Vitruvius in Book VIII. of his work.

Water Closets.

2220. It is unnecessary to describe at length the machinery of a water closet. The principle on which the usual apparatus is formed is that of a head of water in a cistern placed above it, which by means of a lever attached to a valve in the cistern allows a body of water to rush down and wash the basin, whose valve, or pan, is opened for the

discharge of the soil at the same moment that the water is let down from the cistern (par. 2222a. describes the cistern). Bramah's patent was among the first; Underhay's among the latest, which does away with wires and cranks, the supply pipe being constantly filled with water. The student will obtain by the inspection of a closet a far better notion than words or diagrams will convey. The apparatus of a water closet has also been made self-acting, either by opening the door of the closet, or by lifting or depressing the seat of the apparatus. For the more modern flush closets it is generally necessary to pull a chain, which allows a certain quantity of water to flow from the cistern by a valve, or from a water-waste preventer

(par. 2223f.), into the pan, and so wash out the foul water.

2220a. Notwithstanding the many forms of water closet apparatus, nearly all of them may be classed under four heads. I. The old pan apparatus (Fig. 806.), where the water

Fig. 806a.

is retained in a pan, which is discharged on drawing up a handle, into and through a "container," and thence by a short pipe into a trap, called from its shape a D trap. This form was considered to be so objectionable from the occasional deposit in the container, that under par. 69 of the Bye-laws as to New Streets and Buildings, issued by the Local Government Board, "he shall not construct or fix under such pan, basin, or receptacle, any container or any other similar fitting;" and "he shall not construct or fix in or in connection with the water closet apparatus any trap of the kind known as a D trap." The "Banner system" has introduced an ordinary pan closet improved, and also a patent closet with a pan, both without traps.

22206. II. The valve apparatus (fig. 806a.), is now generally fixed in the houses of the better classes. On lifting the handle a valve or flap is let down into the pipe, when the soil descends through it at once into a syphon trap. The water is, however, only kept in the basin by the closer ess of the fit of the valve and its seating, or bottom of the basin. Any slight corrosion, grit, hair, soapy slops, or paper, not washed through, causes the valve to fail to close properly; the water then escapes, the basin is left in a state unfit for use, and smells arise which the valve is intended to prevent. Hayward Tyler and Co. make valve closets with copper bellows or brass regulators. Adams's improved elastic valve closet, with brass or bellows regulator. Warner's patent valve closets. Stidder's improved valve closet, with patent overflow trap

Fig. subb.

and ventilating junction combined; also his patent Siamese trapless closet; and his patent London side outlet valve closet. Banner's Nestor, Elastic, Simplex, Safety, and Twin basin valve closets. Buchan's (Edinburgh) patent sanitary closet, "whereby no sewer smell can pass into the room, even when the handle is pulled up. When the closet valve is lifted, the water falls in full volume direct into the soil pipe, pressing all the gas before it, and causing a syphonage that sends the whole contents in one body to the drain. There being no trap under the valve, the soil pipes are scoured and kept clean." 2220c. III. This class comprises the hopper water closet, or flushing basin (fig. 8066), which is simply a basin or pan finished with a syphon trap at the bottom, without any further apparatus than that which admits the water to flush or wash it out. These pans require the addition of a pail or two of water poured down occasionally to help the clearing of dirt and paper. They are popular for servants' closets and for cottage and common use, but require occasional cleaning out. One of the most simple pans is that called by Messrs. Doulton the enamelled stoneware closet pan, figure D, which, with pan and syphon trap complete, is sold at 38. 9d. each. This class includes Adams's hopper pattern closet, with flushing appa ratus; Warner's patent cottage basin and trap; Stidder's household closet; and others. 2220d. IV. includes a series of more modern contrivances, invented for the purpose of obviating certain defects in the others. They are called the wash-out basin or closet (fig. 806c.); but many still retain the chief defect in the carrying down of the discharge into another receptacle, or trap, below, or at the side, only partially out of sight, and not always with a sufficient flushing power each time it is used, especially where only a small "preventer" is allowed. Among the many patents of these closet pans, are Bostell's Excelsior; Woodward's Excelsior; Winn's complete sanitary closet; Twyford's National; Sharpe's patent pan basin; Winn's free flushing basin and trap; Woodward and Rowley's wash-out closet; Adams's washout pattern closet, with flushing apparatus; Stidder's Torrent water closet; Banner's patent wash-out closet (fig. 80€c.), &c.

Fig 806c.

2220e. The Merits and Demerits of Various Kinds of Water Closets in General Use, by D. Emptage, is printed in the Sanitary Record of October 15, 1883, p. 187. The figures above of these closets are obtained from Dr. Corfield's Laws of Health, 8vo., 1887.

worse.

2220f. A protest has been often made against the continuation of the general mode of fitting up a water closet with a seat, lid, and riser, cr enclosure, which too often proves to be all fair without but foul within. Probably not one of them when taken down but would disclose a state of things, as regards cleanliness, as foul as any drain; espe ciaily so, when the closet has been used for disposing of bedroom slops in contravention of all orders. The lead safe gathers the overflow which will occur, as the servant cannot hold up the handle at the same time as she empties the pail; and unless it has a fall to the waste pipe (if there be one), it lies there to dry up and annoy the house with the foul smell. Often this waste pipe passes into the trap or into the soil pipe, making matters Hence the admirable arrangement put forward by Doulton and Co., in the Lambeth Combination closet, which has the basin and trap made in one piece of stoneware decorated, so that the customary riser is unnecessary; it stands on a finished wood or tiled floor; the seat being made to lift up, it forms a slop sink. The Desideratum closet; Gildea's closet, are others. Twyford's special water closet basins, which comprise the Unitas, the National patent side outlet closet and trap; while the Alliance front outlet closet and trap is a variation of the former one. The Crown sanitary closet basin and trap is a cheap and simple apparatus. The Farnley sanitary closets comprise the Trinal, Universal, National, and Simplex, each in one piece, with or without trap and ventilator. Warner's improved London open water closets, combining in an elegant form a water closet, slop sink, and urinal, well trapped above the floor line. Shanks's patent Tubal and Citizen water closet with hinged seat, &c. Shanks and Co.'s patent system of combined closets and cisterns, where the closet is in one piece of enamelled stoneware, having a very large inlet horn made with the closet. On it is seated a single or double valve cistern, having a correspondingly large outlet valve, which from its size gives a flush compensating for the lack of the usual height, and washes out and replenishes the basin fully. Banner's Holborn combination water closet. All these require an inch-and-aquarter pipe from the cistern, or two gallon syphon cistern or water-waste preventer, for Hushing purposes.

AGANI

TRAPS.

2220g. Traps to water closet fans consist of the old-fashioned and now condemned trap (fig. 806d.), with its dip pipe near one side of it; the trap; and the

INLET FROM
CLOSET

Fig. 806d.

OUTLET
TO SOIL PIR3

or syphon trap. These two last are now generally used. Hellyer makes a patent cast lead V dip trap, or "anti-D" trap as it was termed, of about 8 lb. sheet lead. It is as self-cleansing as all syphons, and leaves no corners for lodgment of dirt. This has an air pipe on the top of the "out-go" portion of the trap, which may be a useful addition.

2220h. The traps themselves must be ventilated to prevent syphonage; they may be unsealed by the momentum of any discharge passing through the trap itself, and by the passage of a considerable quantity of water through a pipe with which the trap is connected. The passage of this water causes a momentary vacuum, by means of which the water is sucked out of the trap.

22201. The question has been raised, why should the water closet be trapped if the soil pipe be kept ventilated and trapped? There must always be some portion of the refuse matter adhering to the inside of the pipe, even if there be good and constant flushing; hence the advisability of trapping it.

2220. The importance of good stench traps to drains is not to be overrated. The usual iron bell trap, as supplied to a sink, or let into a pavement, is sufficient as long as the bell remains perfect. Tye and Andrews manufacture a good new patent sink trap; Cottam has also a cast iron trap or "effluvium interc ptor." Peard and Dent have patented a cast lead pipe trap of 2 and 4 inches diameter, and claim for it that it is of pure and solid lead, without solder or seam of any kind; as clear inside and out as any pipe made by hydraulic pressure; of a perfectly regular substance throughout; and that, being composed of one metal, it is not subject to expansion, nor liable to be affected by the gases, which tend to destroy the ordinary trap. Jennings's "Du Bois" drawn lead traps and bends are made by hydraulic pressure, in the same manner as ordinary lead pipes, from 1 to 4 inches diameter; the inside becomes accessible for cleaning by a screw tap at the bottom of the bend. All these traps only continue effective as long as water remains either in the cup or at the syphon bend, a fact which is either not known to, or forgotten by, very many housekeepers, who complain of the bad smells from the drains in summer time, or after some days of dry weather. Many of such syphons are now manufactured for various purposes in glazed stoneware, which are readily cleaned. Stiff has several "sewer air excluding traps," as the Interceptor trap, and the Weaver ventilating trap. Buchan's patent stoneware drain trap is one of the most useful of the sort. He

FRESH AIR

SEWAG

WAGE

adopted first a trap with a slope down into the syphon, but found that a fall was better; hence the fig. 806e., having a fall of 2 inches for a 4 inch trap, 24 inches for 6 inches fully, and 4 inches for 9 inches fully. Doulton and Co.'s safety sanitary trap (Henman's patent, 1855) is for connecting a water closet pan with the soil pipe; no untrapped joint within a building. Adams's special disconnecting traps. Smeaton, Son and Co.'s interceptor trap. Banner's main drain traps, as the Excello, and the Cerus. Bolding's air shaft or disconnecting trap, with inlet at top and inlet for easy access to drain for clearing stoppages; his soil pipe intercepting trap; and his "disconnector" for 6-inch and 4-inch stoneware drains. Davies's disconnecting receiver and trap for house drains is stated to give: . Thorough disconnection from the sewer. 2. Thorough ventilation f drains. 3. Simplicity in planning house drains. 4. Easy access to drains and traps in case of stoppage. 5. Convenience of fixing in any position, irrespective of sewer. 6. A barrier against rats coming up from the sewer. It is made by J. C. Edwards, of Ruabon.

Fig. 806e.

2220k. Gully traps, for taking off water from yards and from rain-wter pipes, are provided of stoneware as well as of iron. Such as Bolding and Son's simplex gully trap, for various purposes; salt glazed and galvanized iron grates, square and round, some with raking inlets. Bellman's patent gully receives and disconnects one rain-water pipe and three waste pipes; it avoids splashing, ventilates the pipes and drain, forms a gully or drain from a yard or path, and is easy of access for cleaning out; the ordinary or trap can be used with it, and placed at any angle to meet the drain. Adams's patent street gully and yard traps. Banner's gully trap.

22201. A scouring trap is a late invention; it appears to possess some advantages in affording a good scouring wash-out and dip to the drain. Davies's receiver, &c., above described, is for a somewhat similar purpose.

2220m. When drain traps are left for some time they should be flushed out and left full of fresh water, into which should be placed some ordinary calcium chloride, a byproduct of a chemical process, and very cheap. This is exceedingly hydroscopic, having a great affinity for water. Thus the traps would remain full of water for any length of time. (Prof. Babcock of Cornell University, U.S.A.)

2220n. A grease trap to catch the melted fat, &c., from the kitchen sinks, is considered a desirable addition, as it tends to prevent the grease from passing into and stopping the drain. There are several varieties, chiefly of stoneware. Those readily cleaned out by hand are perhaps the best; buckets, used in some, can scarcely be considered satisfactory. Emptying the usual grease trap is one of those many works in connection with a household that almost amounts to emptying a cesspool, as it is usually left and becomes foul; this trap is to be avoided if possible. It is recommended to be ventilated (fig. 807c.). The best of the number is the patent of Mr. Farrow, the first one introduced as a special fixture. Hellyer's, Buchan's, Stiff's, Doulton's, with others, are to be procured. One has been devised by Mr. J. Honeyman, architect, consisting of a shallow box encased with cold water, and covered with a movable grating resting about half an inch or more below the level to which the water would rise. The cold water would be frequently replaced from the service to the sink. The greasy water would adhere to the sides. and be forced up through the grating for removal, and the box, being in sight, would be cleaned out as required. Smeaton, Son & Co.'s grease trap; Adams's grease trap only; and his combination grease trap and flush tank; Durrans' patent glazed stoneware gully and fat trap, by J. C. Edwards of Ruabon, is a cast iron box dropping into the water, and removable for cleansing purposes, giving free access to the drain pipe.

22200. The self-cleaning Trough closet, as Adams's patent, is largely used in schools, factories, barracks, workhouses, and other such institutions where a number of persons are collected or employed. It is automatic, having a Field's self-acting flushing cistern. About five or more closets, or stalls, are formed over the stoneware trough that communicates with the drain. The trough is also made of iron, and is also arranged to be discharged on land and disposed of by irrigation. These troughs require occasional inspection and good water supply.

2220p. Reference has been made (pars. 18876. and 1888h.) to flushing requirements. To these may be added, Adams's patent automatic flush tank, "giving an instant start with drop by drop supply"; his patent improved automatic flushing syphon; his syphon cistern for closet, urinal, &c.; his flushing valves and penstocks for drains and sewers; Stidder's patent syphon water flusher; Doulton and Co.'s automatic flush tank; and others by Jennings and Co.

2221. Urinals are made of slate for public use, of various forms and arrangements. A water supply from a self-acting flushing cistern, holding from 10 to 20 gallons, arranged for a discharge according to use; about every quarter of an hour is considered sufficient to free a much frequented urinal from all nuisance. Sometimes water is turned on for a time at several hours of the day. White pottery urinals for private use are of all varieties and shapes. The overflow pipe supplied to some is not always a desirable addition. Doulton and Co.'s improved urinal and lavatory; Adams's patent lavatory ranges for schools, &c.; and urinal and closet erections. Jenning's urinal erections for two or more persons. Stidder's school lavatory and slop sink, as used in the London and other Board schools. Mounted lavatories for domestic use, by Warner and other manufac turers above mentioned.

2222. The use of Earth closets as one of the safeguards against smells from sewers has made no headway for large populations, and is beset with practical difficulties. In the Midland and Lancashire towns the pail or tub system has been much more largely introduced as a substitute for the water closet, and it has, from a landlord's point of view, many attractions. The first cost, as compared with that of a water closet, is small, and the landlord is, in most towns, relieved afterwards of all future cost and maintenance, Whereas in the case of water closets in cottage property there is undoubtedly great diffieulty in keeping them in good working order, especially during frosts. There are, however, many objections to the pail system, especially that it appears to be a costly appendage to the water-carriage system, inasmuch as the remaining liquid refuse has still to be dealt with by the modern systems of precipitation or irrigation, at practically the same cost as would have been the case if the water-carriage system had been adopted in its entirety by the municipal authorities.

2222a. The deposits are at once deodorised by a small quantity of coal ashes or earth, which absorbs the ammonia and other fertilising properties, for removal to the garden or field. It may be considered more serviceable where there is a deficient water supply or a want of proper drainage, and in country, rather than in town, localities. Moule's patent was the first invented. Morrell's patent cinder sifting ash closet, and Heap's patent dry closet, are other inventions. The earth may, with proper drying, be used

Y Y