houses and tombs; confining ourselves to those ruins in the city, and occasionally the provinces, which best illustrate the subject.

208. Temples 1. The quadrangular Roman temple partook very much of its Greek, or perhaps Etruscan, original; though occasionally, as in the Temple of Peace, there is a very considerable deviation from the type. But the exceptions to the general rule are very few indeed in number. The most beautiful temple of the Corinthian order that perhaps ever existed in the world was the (formerly so called) Temple of Jupiter Stator, in the Campo Vaccino or more properly the Forum at Rome, and now designated the Temple of the Dioscuri or of Castor and Pollux, in consequence of recent excavations. It was an octastyle peripteral temple, with eleven columns in flank, and the cell occupied eight columns on each side. No Greek work could surpass in elegance and beauty the profile of the Corinthian order employed in this edifice. The capital, whether considered as to design or execution, is unparalleled. At the same time it must be admitted that it bears every mark of the improvements that had been effected through the medium of Greek artists. Three columns with their entablature remain; these are 4765 ft. high, the lower diameter being 4·84; so that the columns are 98 diameters high. The height of the entablature is a small fraction less than one quarter the height of the column. The intercolumniations are, as nearly as possible, 1·5 diameter of the column; whence the size of the temple will be easily determined.

209. At the foot of the Ca itol stands the Corinthian Temple of Jupiter Tonans (so called), also called Temple of Saturn, but now of Vespasian, of which, as of the last, only three columns remain. This was an hexastyle peripteral (except on the side towards the rock) temple, 115 ft. long and 92 ft. wide, measured from outside to outside of column. The columns are 47:08 ft. high, and their lower diameter is 4.60 ft.; their height, therefore, in terms of the diameter, is very nearly 10 diameters. The height of the entablature is 9.77 ft., or not quite one fifth of the height of the column. The intercolumniations are 1:56 diameter. There is a tale in Suetonius, that Augustus had bells suspended round this temple on the occasion of his dreaming that the god complained of a falling off in the number of his worshippers. Its style is inferior to the one above described, yet it is not without beauty, though the comice is, as compared with it, deficient in effect. (The description of the different species of temples mentioned by Vitruvius is given in the GLOSSARY, S. v. Temple.)

210. The Temple of Mars Ultor was one of those erected by Augustus. Its profile exhibits a fine and bold example of the Corinthian order. Its whole length was about 116 ft., and its breadth about 73 ft. The cornice of the entablature is wanting. The intercolumniations are about 1 diameter.

211. In the Campo Vaccino are the remains of a Corinthian temple, built by M. Aurelius in honour of Antoninus, his predecessor, and Faustina, the wife of M. Aurelius, about the middle of the 2nd century. in a high style of art, and is considered the last pure building in Rome It was prostylos and hexastylos; the columns are 46:10 ft. high; the entablature 11.03 ft; diameter of the columns 4 85 ft.; and the intercolumniations, except the centre one, which is wider than the others, are 11⁄2 diameter of the columns; the columns are 9 diameters high, and the entablature rather less than one fourth that height; the frieze is ornamented with griffins and candelabra. It is not our intention to describe more thin the principal temples, with their parts, but to afford to the reader in this place a general view of the art; we shall therefore merely mention those of the Maison Carrée at Nismes, and the little edifice at Trevi, which last is erected in a very vitiated style: both are of the Corinthian order, and quadrangular in form.

212. Rome is very poor in examples of Ionic temples, the only two remaining being that of Fortuna Virilis and that of Concord; the first not very pure in its detail, and the latter in the very worst style. The Temple of Fortuna Virilis is of the species called prostyle and tetrastyle; that is, with four columns in front and seven on the sides, whereof the cell occupies four intercolumniations. The height of the columns is 27 35 ft.; the lower diameter of the columus 3.11 ft.; and the neight of the entablature 6'78 ft. A peculiarity has been noticed in this example of the different centres of the ornamented members being ranged so as to fall with exactness over the axes of the columns.

ar.

213. The (formerly so called) Temple of Concord, now of Saturn, or the Ærarium, which is a restoration of a former temple, is probably of the age of Constantine, and scarcely deserves the notice here taken of it, except as a connecting link in the chain of It was hexastyle and peripteral. The eight columns which remain are of red and white granite of different diameters. The bases are Attic, and without plinths. except those of the angular columns. The capitals are inelegant and clumsily sculptured. The mouldings of the architrave have been chiselled away to form a plane surface for comaining the inscription. Modillions and dentils are met with in the cornice, and the frieze in the interior was sculptured. The height of the columns is 42 86 ft., and their lower diameter 4-48 ft.; so that they are about 9 diameters high. The height of the entablature is 7.2 ft. or about one sixth of the height of the columa.

214. The circular temples of Rome and its neighbourhood will next be mentioned. Two of them, that of Vesta at Rome and of the Sybil at Tivoli, of the Corinthian order, are of considerable antiquity. Their cells are cylindrical, and are supposed to have been covered with domes resting on the walls, though that is by no means certain. The Temple of Vesta is raised on three steps, whilst that of the Sybil is raised on a circular basement about five feet high. Both the cellæ are encircled about with a colonnade of the Corinthian order. The capitals of the Temple of the Sybil are extraordinary as pieces of effective art The leaves of the capital, instead of being appliquées to the bell, as in other examples, are in this cut into it, and impart a magical appearance to it. The tout ensemble of this temple seems to have been conceived with an eye to its situation, and the order seems calculated only for the spot on which it stands (see fig. 116.). The circular Temple

of Bacchus is of a late date. In its exterior there is nothing to remark, except that it has lost a portico at its entrance which originally belonged to it. It consists of a central circular cell, if such it may be called, surrounded by a circular aisle, the former being separated from the latter by twelve pairs of double columns, coupled in the direction of the radii of the plan; from which columns arches spring, carrying a cylindrical wall 39-36 ft. diameter, covered with a hemispherical dome 65-6 ft. high from the pavement. aisle or corridor is 14.75 ft. wide, surrounding the double colonnade, from which to the exterior wall is a semicircular vault, whose sofite is 32 ft. high from the pavement. Of the former so called Temple of Minerva Medica, now considered to be a Hall or Nymphæum belonging to the great Therma of the 3rd century,

The

of the time of Decius, little more than half of it is s'anding. It was 110 ft. in diameter; but the interior was formed into ten plane faces, each having a semicircular recess towards the interior. A hemispherical brick dome was 113 ft. from the pavement. A semicircular wing, covered by a hemispherically formed vault, stood on each side of the building, but they are now in ruins. Fig. 117. shows the ruin as it was in 1816, from a memorandum we then made. A rectan gular vestibule with four Corinthian columns formed

the entrance, and was surmounted by a pediment roof. The temple now stands in a private garden.

215. We have reserved for the last example of a circular temple the celebrated Pantheon, supposed to have formed at one time a portion of the baths of Agrippa, and erected about BC. 27. The body of the temple was probably erected in the time of the republic with simple large niches, as in figs. 118. and 119.; the left side shows it as originally built, and the right side as now standing; the portico was probably erected by M. Aurelius

Antoninus, cir. A.D. 166, and completed by Septimius Severus, A.D. 202, at which time the columus were added to the niches, and other alterations made, as seen on the right half of the plan and section. The interior is circular and about 139 ft. diameter, measuring from inside to inside of the columns, which are about S3 ft. high. At a height of 75 ft. from the ground in the interior springs the hemispherical deme, which has five horizontal ranks of caissons or panels, the top of the dome being terminated by what is technically termed an eye, or circular opening, about 27 ft. diameter. All that is found in the temple is of the Corinthian order.

216. Fig. 120. is an elevation of the Pantheon, with the portico of the Parthenon below it, for the purpose of comparing the relative sizes of the porticoes of the two buildings. The portico, it will be seen, is octastyle, and projects 62 ft. from the circumference of the circular part of the edifice. The shafts of the columns are plain, and the portico is surmounted by a pediment similar to that on the wall of the building. The columus are 47-03 ft. high, and their lower diameter 4.79 ft.

entablature is 10-22 ft., or nearly, not quite a fifth of the height of the column.

The
The

profile of the order is bold and well conceived, and the execution in a good style. It has been stripped of its ornaments, many whereof were bronze, by the cupidity of the possessors of power at various times. Though the present interior is comparatively modern, we think it right to give the following particulars of the order :- The columns are 34.67 ft. high, the lower diameter being 3.64 ft. The shafts are fluted, and have what are called cablings up one third of their height. It will be seen on inspection of the plan that these columns are placed in front of the great niches. We are not aware that the circumstance whereto we are about to advert has been heretofore noticed, and we give the result of our calculation in round numbers only, as an approximation to the truth. The rules for lighting apartinents will form the subject of a future section. We shall here merely observe, that the contents of the building, measuring round the inner convexity of the columns, and not calculating the niches, is about 1,787,300 cubic feet, and that the area of the eye of the dome is about 32 square ft., from which it follows that 2226 cubic ft. of space in this building are lighted by 1 foot superficial of light. The building is neither gloomy nor

Fig. 115. SECTIONS OF ORIGINAL AND PRESENT PANTHEON.

dark on the contrary a pleasant light is diffused throughout, and darkness is not found in any corner of it. This is a subject well worthy of consideration, and one which we propose hereafter to turn to practical account.

217. The Temple of Peace has been reserved by us to close the notices of the Roman temples, because of its deviation from the general form of other Greek and Roman temples, which in the quadrangular species are so formed on one general plan that ab uno disce omnes is the expression applicable to them. The figs. 121. and 122. represent the plan and section of this

building. The former will be seen to have been rectangular, with a porch extending along the whole breadth of the building in front. This was vaulted, the summit interiorly being 35 ft. high; and in front were seven semicircular-headed apertures serving as entrances. The length of the temple outside, not including the depth of the porch, was 294 ft.; depth of the porch 30 ft.; width of the building 197 ft. The temple was longitudinally divided into three nearly equal parts, whereof the central one was a rectangular salone of the whole length of the temple, whose breadth was one third of its length. The roof of this was a vault with three groins, formed by the intersection of semicylindrical vaults at right angles to the cenpavement was about 116 ft., and We shall not however pursue the

verbal description of this edifice, which will be much better understood by an inspection of the diagrams. We will only add, that although the columns in the interior are entirely gone, and the building is in a sad state of dilapidation, enough has been discovered to prove that the restoration here submitted to the reader is not very far from the truth. In many cases the restorations of Palladio, whose works it is the fashion amongst half-instructed architects and still less informed amateurs to decry, are not to be wholly relied on in his capacity of antiquary, and certainly must not be taken for granted; but his restoration of this temple cannot widely differ from the truth. It appears to have been founded by Claudius, and finished by Vespasian after the conquest of Judea, and seems to have been the depository of the spoils of the temple at Jerusalem. It is uncertain by what accident in the reign of Commodus it was destroyed, but it is conjectured it was restored during his reign. It may not be here altogether out of place to notice that the temple in question seems in some measure to have furnished the hint for the nave of the Italian Duomo with its side aisles. It was but in the addition of the transepts and choir, whose type is indicated even in the basilica of the first Christians, that a variation is to be seen. If the cross, however, be not sufficiently apparent in the basilica, it cannot be mistaken in the churches but little later.

Fig. 122.

TEMPLE OF PEACE.

218. Foru. —2. The Forum of the Romans is described generally in Vitruvins (Book vi. chap. 1.). He directs that it should be a large rectangular area, whose breadth is to be about two thirds of its length. The basilica or court of justice, serving also as an exchange for the merchants, is to be attached to it. The forum in a Roman city was the arena on which business, politics, and pleasure were equally transacted, discussed, and enjoyed. Among the Greeks it was called the ayopa, signifying a place in which the citizens were collected. It is here to be observed, that the fora of the Romans were of two sorts: Ford Cicilia and Fora Venalia; the former whereof were designed as well with the object of ornamenting the cities in which they were erected, as for admitting a site for the public courts of justice, and other public buildings; the latter were intended to provide for the necessities and conveniences of the inhabitants, and no doubt bore a resemblance to cur markets. The great Forum at Rome was seated between the Palatine and Capitoline bills. Its boundary has of late years been more satisfactorily traced, by the extensive excavations which have laid bare the pavements and other details of the original buildings erected around it. The theories of Bunsen, Becker, Dyer, and Canina, are arranged and explained by the late Mr. A. Ashpitel, in the paper read by him at the Inst. of Brit. Architects, 1857. The explorations since 1870 are to some extent shown in Burn's Rome and the Campagna, 1871; and in Taylor & Cresy, Antiquities of Rome, new edit. fol. 1874. Photographs of a large size have likewise been pub. lished, not only of the existing ruins but of the discoveries. The Forum of Nera is said to have been 367 ft. long and 164 ft. wide. At one end were five arched entrances, and at the other the Temple of Nerva. The Forum of Trajan, built by the emperor whose name it bears, was erected from the foreign spoils taken by him in his wars. The coverings of its edifices were all of brass, and the porticoes and their columns constructed in an exceedingly splendid style of execution. Ammianus Marcellinus ( Ilist. lib. xvi.) describes, with much force, the delight of Constantius on contemplating it when he made his triumphal entry into Rome. The representations make its length 1150 ft., and its mean breadth about 470 ft. In it was the emperor's magnificent column (fig. 111.), at one end was the Temple of Trajan, and at the other his Triumphal Arch. This Forum contained the celebrated and splendid Basilica Ulpiana. The other example we shall mention was at Fano, and we mention it because it contained a basilica by Vitruvius himself He describes the portico of the Temple of Augustus as joining that side of the basilica which was furthest from the centre of the Forum, and a temple of Jupiter as standing at the opposite end. He goes on to describe the Treasury, Prison, and Curia, as placed on the longer sides of the Forum exteriorly to the shops which surrounded the arca. The commentators on Vitruvius have been at considerable pains to make out the plan of the basilica of this building from the verbal description of it by the author, — perhaps none of them with greater success than old Daniel Barbaro.

219. But no words convey the description of a place so well as a diagram of the object under consideration; and as there exists at Pompeii a forum so perfect, that all the rules given by our great master are exemplified in it, we here place the plan (fig. 123.) of the forum there before the reader, so that he may have a complete notion of the arrangement. Entering from the gate of Herculaneum, the principal street leads to its north-west corner,