occupied except by Indians. Two new provinces were created, and after 1791 there were four elected assemblies where before there had been only one. But the effect of the Loyalist immigration went far beyond these things which can easily be measured. The Loyalists brought with them qualities and ideas which were toughened by hard experience. No country could have asked for pioneers more likely to succeed. They had a strong loyalty to the British flag, and at the same time a determination to enjoy the liberties and rights of self-government to which they had been accustomed. The variety of people among them is one of the things which interests us most English, Scottish, Irish, and German families, representing districts in the Thirteen Colonies all the way from New England to western Pennsylvania. Most of

them were humble and obscure people, many were from well educated and prominent families. Among them were soldiers and army officers, who brought a sense of discipline and organization. Others were men and women of force and experience whose influence could be seen everywhere in the life of their pioneer communities. Many of their descendants have shown the same high qualities of leadership, and it is no wonder that the Loyalist tradition has left in Canada an indelible impression.

[Picture] Postage stamp issued to mark the one hundred and fiftieth anniversary of the coming of the Loyalists.

7. GHANA

The American Revolutiona

[S]oon after the discovery of the New World, many Europeans left their own countries to find homes in the West Indies and in America. These people were called 'colonists'. Some left Europe because of the religious troubles. . . . Others left because they disagreed with the government of their own countries. Many of these men crossed the Atlantic to search for silver and gold or to start cotton and tobacco plantations.

From about 1607, thousands of British people settled in the eastern and southern parts of the present-day United States of America. (Look at the map [below].)

[Map] The Thirteen Colonies which became the original thirteen states of the U.S.A. [Major map features name and locate the 13 Colonies and 23 important cities in eastern North America.]

As time went on, these colonists became more prosperous. Each British colony had its own government, but at this time, the European governments insisted on their right to pass laws for their colonies.

During the seventeenth century in England, the government passed three Navigation Acts, which made certain rules about the colonial trade. Some of the goods produced by the colonies were to be exported only to Britain or other British colonies, and other goods intended for the colonies had to pass

Compilers' Note.-From F. K. Buah's A New History for Schools and Colleges," Book 2 (2d ed.). London: Macmillan London Ltd., 1970. Pp. 71-74. Reproduced with permission from Macmillan London and Basingstoke. The material is designed for the early post primary years of a primary-secondary cycle that may vary from 12 to 17 years. (Original in English.)

through English ports for taxation. Only British ships, and British colonial ships agreeing to certain rules, could be used. This increased the price of goods.

For some time the colonists in America evaded some of these laws. But during the second half of the eighteenth century, Britain levied several new taxes which the colonists felt they could not accept. They refused to obey these laws, because nobody from America had taken part in making these laws. 'How can we be asked to pay taxes by the British parliament in which we have no representative to speak for us?' they said.

But George III, King of Britain, and some of his advisers insisted that they did have the right to tax the Americans. Naturally, the Americans, who had left their homeland in search of freedom, refused to pay the taxes. They pleaded unsuccessfully with the British government to stop these taxes.

In 1775, the situation exploded into a war, which lasted for eight years. At first, the British proved stronger than the Americans. But the Americans had an able leader in George Washington, and as the war continued, they gained the upper hand. In 1778 France entered the war, and French troops came to the aid of the Americans. Another advantage for the Americans was the great distance from Britain. It was difficult for the British government to transport and supply troops.

Matters grew worse for the British, when other European nations, France, Spain and Holland, attacked the British navy at sea. Britain, fighting on several fronts at once, found it even more difficult to send troops to America.

The war ended in 1783 in defeat for Britain; with the signing of the Treaty of Paris, Britain recognized America as an independent country. (In the course of the war, on the fourth of July, 1776, the Americans had declared their country independent of Britain. This date, rather than a date in 1783, has since been celebrated by America as Independence Day.)

To sum up, the American victory was the result of

good leadership, a better knowledge of the geography of the country, and help from France and other European countries. Britain's defeat was caused not only by the great distance between the battlefield and the home country, but also by poor leadership and the difficulty of fighting on several fronts at once.

The American colonies' successful struggle for independence was a revolution. It was the first time in modern times that a colony ruled from outside had

rejected foreign rule and formed a nation of its own. Britain learned an important lesson from this. From that time onwards, Britain had a new attitude towards some of her colonies, such as Canada and, later, Australia, where her own people had settled. In their other colonies, however, the British repeated the mistake of keeping colonial rule for too long a time. This led to another revolution: the emergence of self-rule for the former Asian and African colonies.

The American Revolutiona

Causes of the Revolution

The main reasons for the American revolution against British colonialism are as follows:

Revolution Against Colonialism

We have already discussed how the English colonists landed on the eastern coast of North America, how they established 13 colonies there during the 16th and 17th centuries, and how they constituted a part of the British Empire, with their population in 1760 totaling nearly one-third that of England herself.

The Americans took part in all the wars that Britain waged against France during a large part of the 18th century, participating with their forces, their lives, their material sacrifices, and their leaders, famous among whom was George Washington, who fought on the side of the English against France in the Seven Years' War in Canada (1756-63).

Furthermore, the American colonies suffered what England had succumbed to, in terms of the absolute authority of its kings during the 17th century.

But while the British Isles were able, under the leadership of Parliament, to restrict this [royal] authority through the 1688 revolt, England, under the auspices of this same Parliament, refused to allow the American colonies to enjoy the freedom and the constitutional reform it enjoyed. Therefore, the American Revolution was not only a revolt against blind British imperialism, but also a revolt to secure constitutional freedom and democratic principles.

1. British Tyranical Rule in America

In each American colony there was a Governor representing the King of England, as well as two legislative bodies, one of which was elected by the people while the other was appointed by the Governor. But the British Parliament held the highest authority above those two bodies. The British Parliament was really the body that actually formulated the laws for the colonies and decreed the taxes imposed on them. There was a considerable conflict between the elected legislatures of the colonies and the appointed Governors, who were acting on behalf of the Parliament and the King of England. The frequency of this conflict resulted in increasing the awareness of the Americans of the conflict of interest between the American people and the British.

After the Seven Years' War, the Americans felt more resentment toward England, because they expected England to reward the American colonies by granting them greater freedom in managing their own affairs as a result of the staunch support the colonies gave England in this war. But [instead] England began administrative and economic reorganization of the colonies in order to increase its control over them.

Compilers' Note.-Translated from A. Radwan, M. Afifi, and M. El-Ghanam's Ousool Elalam Elhadith: Muntha Elnahtha Elorupia Hata Waktana Elhather (Foundations of the Modern World: From the European Renaissance to Modern Times). Cairo: Government Press, 1974. Pp. 78-89. The material is designed for the 10th year of a 12-year primary-secondary school cycle.

2. England's Trade and Economic Monopoly

Behind this political disenchantment, there was discontent with the monopolistic policies of England in America. Ironically, while the British middle class acquired their freedom and supported the authority of the Parliament against the tyranny of the Kings of England, the same class supported the tyranny of the English Government and its monopolistic policies in

the colonies, exploiting American resources for British interests.

Examples are: (1) the Americans were forbidden to transport their trade in any ships except British vessels; (2) the Americans were prohibited from manufacturing what they could buy from England; (3) the Americans were restricted in purchasing certain commodities except through England.

The American colonies felt the burden of these controls and made it known to the British, but the British always justified the controls under the guise of protecting the colonies from the French in Canada. Ironically again, these controls were tightened as England emerged from the Seven Years' War burdened by a heavy debt ($700 million), and demanded from the colonies a greater share in paying these debts and in supporting the ever-increasing costs involved in England's imperialist expansion.

The British Parliament began increasing the taxes on the colonies, such as those on sugar, wine, silk, and coffee, without their consultation.

Then the British issued new directives restricting the trade of the Americans and warning them against exports to, and imports from, any other country. Furthermore, the Parliament took away the right of any colony to issue its own currency and financial paper.

Finally, England issued the Stamp Act, which brought about organized opposition from the Americans. This act imposed special taxes on newspapers, tickets, licenses, rental contracts, financial documents, and other legal agreements intended for the protection, defense, and maintenance of the colonies.

The Struggle for Freedom From British Colonialism

The organized American opposition to colonialism and English oppression began in 1765 and took the following forms: (1) popular resistance, indicating widespread anger with British policies; (2) consolidating efforts and unifying ranks under wise leadership; (3) open armed warfare against British colonialism.

1. Popular Resistance

After the issuance of the Stamp Act, the Americans openly expressed their anger, which was reflected by their newspapers, lawyers, religious leaders, merchants, and businessmen. These groups

played a strong part in shaping public opinion, and led America's boycott of England materially and morally. Thus in 1765 the merchants boycotted English imports, leading to a business slowdown for a period of time and to a significant decrease in the trade with England.

No taxation without representation. -At that time, the Americans began to adopt the important principle of "no taxation without representation," and they believed that imposing taxes without consultation with them or with their representatives was a threat to their freedom.

The 1765 New York Convention. -In October of 1765, a convention took place in New York that included 27 distinguished and able men representing nine colonies. This was the first convention to unite the colonies in their struggle for freedom. This convention issued several proclamations asserting that there should be no taxation in the colonies except that adopted by their own legislatures.

England continued its policy of imposing taxes. Facing this strong opposition, England retreated initially by repealing the Stamp Act. This eased the opposition to a certain extent. But in 1767 the British Government reimposed taxes on paper, glass, lead, and tea imported into the colonies from Britain. This rekindled the anger and the indignation of the colonists, leading the merchants and others again to depend more upon themselves, utilize their own resources, and boycott English trade. So the people began to use locally manufactured clothing and paper, and restricted their use of tea and paint for their homes.

The Boston Massacre of 1770.-In Boston, where trade interests were highly affected by the British meddling, the Bostonians revolted against the new tax regulations. They attacked customs officials who insisted on collecting taxes. When the British authorities sent two regiments to protect these officials, soldiers opened fire, killing and wounding civilians-an act that outraged public opinion and intensified the opposition.

England insisted on its right to impose taxes. — In 1770, the British Parliament recognized the intensity. of the opposition, retreated, and cancelled all taxes. except the tea tax, which was maintained due to the King's insistence that there should be at least one tax imposed in order to preserve his right to tax the colonies. As a result, tension decreased for 3 consecutive years, but the storm of opposition began again when some Americans called attention to the tea tax,