of the s from need as we explain its absence from can, may, shall, will, dare.

Do,

186. Do represents two verbs originally distinct. meaning 'to be good for' (Latin valere), which occurs in such expressions as 'This will do nicely,' 'How d'ye do?' had no connexion originally with the do of general use, 'to make, perform,' Latin facere. The former verb was confused however in its conjugation with do, meaning 'make,' and assumed its inflexions, did, done.

Do (Latin facio) forms compounds, don, 'to do on,' 'to put on,' of clothing: doff, 'to take off': 'douse' or 'dout, to put out,' of a light or fire: dup, 'to do up,' or 'fasten,' of a door.

In the Present Tense, doest, doeth have contracted forms dost, doth.

The uses of do are important:

I. As a Notional Verb, meaning 'make, perform': 'He did his work.'

2. As an Auxiliary—

(a) in place of the present or past indefinite: 'I do repent' for 'I repent'; 'He did rejoice' for 'He rejoiced'; 'They did eat' for 'They ate.' The auxiliary do is here unemphatic.

(b) to emphasize our meaning: 'I do think so;' 'He did try hard'; 'They did eat.'

(c) in interrogative sentences: 'Do you think so?' 'Did he go?'

(a) in negative sentences: 'He does not think so'; 'I did not go.'

The verb dependent on the auxiliary is in the infinitive mood.

3. As a substitute for other verbs, except 'be': 'He reads more than you do (read)'; 'I said I wouldn't take the

money and I didn't (take it)'; 'You play well and so does (play) your brother.'

187. The following verbs are practically obsolete:

Wit, 'to know,' had its Present Tense wot, and Past Tense wist, without inflexions marking person: 'I'll find Romeo to comfort you: I wot well where he is'; 'He wist not what to say.' The infinitive to wit now signifies 'namely.'

Worth is all that remains of an old verb signifying to be or become. 'Woe worth the chase, woe worth the day' means 'Woe betide,' or 'befal.'

in

Quoth is a Past Tense, the Present of which appears the compound bequeath. It occurs now only in the first and third persons singular and always precedes the pronoun: 'quoth I,' 'quoth he.'

QUESTIONS.

1. Explain the term Copula. Make the copula explicit in the sentence 'The fire burns.'

[The word copula belongs to Logic rather than to Grammar. In Logic, the proposition 'Man is mortal' would be described as consisting of two terms and a copula: the term man is the subject, the term mortal is the predicate, and the word is, which connects the two, is the copula. In Grammar, mortal is not the predicate, but together with is it forms the predicate. To bring the sentence 'The fire burns' into the form of the proposition in Logic we must say 'The fire is burning.' We have then made the copula explicit.]

2. Explain the meaning of subject, predicate, and copula, and point out each of them and their expansions in the following sentence:

'Is this a dagger that I see before me?'

3. Give in outline the history of the Auxiliary Verbs. Discuss the following constructions:

(1) I did come.

(2) I have come.

(3) I ought to come.

(4) I ought to have come.

CHAPTER XVIII.

ADVERBS.

188. An Adverb is a word which modifies the meaning of a verb, adjective, or other adverb.

Verbs usually indicate an action, and this action may be performed in various ways and in different circumstances. These variations in the conditions under which the action takes place are expressed by adverbs. Thus the action asserted in the sentence 'He bowled' is described as limited or modified, as regards the time when it occurred, if I say 'yesterday'; as regards the place, if I say 'here'; as regards the manner, if I say 'badly.' The vagueness of the statement 'He bowled' has been in large measure removed when I say 'Yesterday he bowled here badly.' Just as adjectives limit the application of nouns to things, so adverbs limit the application of verbs to actions. Just as the words 'clever boy' are applicable to fewer objects than the word 'boy,' so the words 'bowled yesterday' are applicable to fewer actions than the word "bowled.'

Again, Adjectives denote attributes, and these attributes are such as, in many instances, but by no means in all, vary in degree. One way of indicating this variation is by comparison: another is by the use of adverbs which denote degree. If the reader will refer to the chapter on the Inflexion of Adjectives, he will see that the Demonstrative

Adjectives, e.g. this, that, first, second, do not admit of Comparison at all; that the same thing is true of the definite Quantitative Adjectives, like none, both, and the Cardinal Numerals; and that even of the Qualitative Adjectives there are several which cannot be compared. Hence it is only to some adjectives that adverbs can be applied. Moreover it is only some adverbs which are applicable to adjectives. Adverbs of time, place, manner, cannot be used to qualify adjectives, though they qualify verbs. The same remarks apply to the qualification of adverbs by other adverbs. We can say 'very bad,' 'very badly,' but there is no meaning in saying 'here bad,' 'hither badly,' 'anyhow bad,' 'then badly,' for though these words may possibly occur together in sentences, reflexion will show that in such cases it is the verb, and not the adjective or adverb, which is modified.

189. We may classify Adverbs on three different principles.

I. As Simple and Conjunctive.

Most adverbs are simple. They contain a meaning in themselves: 'He thinks so now,' 'I live here,' 'We were greatly pleased.'

A few however have a meaning only when they are taken in connexion with another clause. 'He came when,' ‘I waited while,' 'They are sitting where,' are meaningless assertions until the sentences are completed: 'He came when I called,' 'I waited while he wrote a letter,' 'They are sitting where we left them.' These adverbs have the force of conjunctions in joining clauses together. Hence they are called Conjunctive Adverbs. The reader will observe that in possessing this connecting force they resemble the so-called relative pronouns. In 'I know who it is,' the clauses 'I know,' 'it is,' are united by the relative pronoun who: in 'I know where it is,' they are united by the conjunctive adverb where.

190. II. According to their Meaning.

when? now, to-day, then, yesterday, soon, to-morrow how long? always, ever

how often? twice, yearly, rarely

where? here, near, below

whence? hence, thence

whither? hither, thither

in what order? secondly, lastly

3. Degree, or Quantity how much? scarcely, quite, little, exactly

4. Manner, or Quality how?

5. Certainty

6. Reason and Consequence

well, ill, and adverbs in -ly

certainly, not, perhaps

why, therefore, thus

191. Yes and No. What are we to call the words Yes and No?

They are usually classed as Adverbs of Affirmation and Negation, or, to use the term employed in our table, Adverbs of Certainty. Yet they are not exactly adverbs, for we cannot use them to modify verbs, adjectives, or other adverbs: we cannot say 'He yes did it,' 'He is yes good,' 'He acted yes wisely.' In some respects they resemble Interjections, but they are not, like them, the expression of a sudden feeling. They are really equivalent to sentences: 'Did he say so?' 'Yes,'—that is, 'He said so': 'No,'-that is, 'He did not say so.' As they are certainly words, we must either make them a new Part of Speech, which seems undesirable, or include them with Adverbs or with Interjections, though different from both. The student will of course understand that no, meaning none, is an adjective: 'no money,' 'no friends.'

192. III. According to their Origin or Mode of Formation.

The following are the principal modes in which Adverbs are formed:

I. Adverbs from Adjectives.

2. Adverbs from Nouns in their oblique cases.

3. Adverbs from Pronouns.

4. Compound Adverbs.