ante-, 'before,' ante-chamber.

bi-, bis-, 'twice,' bi-ped, bis-cuit.

contra-, 'against,' contra-dict, counter-march.

in-, (i) 'in': in-fuse, im-pel, en-rol: (ii) 'not': in-sensible, impossible, ir-responsible.

minus-, 'mis-chief,' with meaning of English prefix mis-, but of different origin.

non-,

'not': non-conformity.

per-, 'through': per-secute, pur-sue, per-jure, (compare 'for-swear'). re-, 'again,' 'back': re-cur, re-turn.

super-, 'over': super-fine, sur-vive, sir-loin.

vice-, 'instead of': vice-roy, vis-count.

GREEK:

an-, a-, 'not': an-archy, a-theist.

ana-,

'again,' 'back': ana-logy, ana-lyse.

anti-, 'against': anti-pathy, ant-agonist. In anti-cipate however we have Latin ante.

archi-, 'chief': archi-tect, arche-type, arch-bishop.

auto-, 'self': auto-biography, auto-maton.

ek-, ex-, 'out of': ec-logue, ex-odus.

eu-, 'well' eu-logy, ev-angelical.

hyper-, 'beyond': hyper-bolical.

meta-, 'change': meta-phor.

mono-, 'single': mono-poly, mon-arch. pan-, panto-, 'all': pan-acea, panto-mime. para-, 'beside': para-graph.

syn-, 'with': syn-od, syl-lable, sym-bol.

218.

Division of Words into Syllables.

A Syllable consists of a single vowel sound with or without accompanying consonants. It is pronounced by a single effort of the voice. Through is a single syllable, though it contains seven letters: ideality with eight letters has five syllables. In through there is one vowel sound, the long o of cool, here represented by ou: in ideality there are five distinct vowel sounds, with three consonants dispersed amongst them.

There are no hard and fast rules for the division of words into syllables, when a division is necessary in writing. In this matter, as also in the matter of punctuation, writers are very much at the mercy of the printers. From the nature

of the case, no division can be made in words of one syllable however long. Straight, scratch, drought, contain only one vowel-sound and must be written and printed entire. Two principles should regulate the separation of words of more than one syllable into parts: as far as possible we ought to follow

(1) the etymology,

(2) the pronunciation.

Hence the hyphen is placed between the prefix or suffix and the root of derivatives, and between the constituent parts of compounds: en-large, duch-ess, free-man. But sometimes the division according to pronunciation is at variance with the division according to etymology. For example, orthography, geology, would be divided thus, if we follow the pronunciation as our guide,-orthog-raphy, geol-ogy, whereas their etymology would direct us to divide them thus,ortho-graphy, geo-logy. In cases of conflict of this kind it is generally best to place the hyphen consistently with the etymology'.

QUESTIONS.

1. Add to each of the following words the prefix which reverses the meaning:-contented, proper, visible, pleasant, ingenuous, natural.

2. Define the terms prefix and suffix. Illustrate your answer by analysing the following words into their component parts:-believing, darling, forlorn, islet, nethermost, requital, spinster, uncouth.

3. Does the phrase 'Ærated bread' require correction?

['Ærated bread' would be bread made of bronze (Latin aes, aeris). What sort of bread is sold at the ABC shops, and whence does it get its name?]

4. Break up the words mistrustfully, unwholesomeness, into syllables, and explain how each syllable contributes to the meaning of the words.

5. Why are the following words hybrids?—forbear-ance, duke-dom, somnambul-ist, un-just, social-ism, master-ship.

1 See Angus' Handbook of the English Tongue, pp. 111-2.

6. Give the derivation and history of the following words; and mention any case of double meaning, or of change of meaning alderman, defeat, drake, idiot, invalid, involve, kaleidoscope, middle, megrim, monk, orchard, pilgrim, scholar, uncouth.

7. What are the chief constituent elements of the English language?

Give the derivation of the following words, pointing out any change of meaning:-ally, agony, dyspeptic, girl, journal, lord, person, ornithologist, poison, rival, sherry, silly, somersault, telegraph, villain, volume.

8. Give the derivation of the following words, showing from what languages they were taken:—caitiff, cardinal, frenzy, seraph, nightingale, welkin.

9. Give the etymology of the following words:-gazette, tinsel, blame, loyal, archbishop, sheriff.

IO. Which is the right place for the hyphen in the following words? Why?-suicide or suic-ide; locom-otive or loco-motive; viad-uct or viaduct; apo-stle or apos-tle; epig-ram or epi-gram; dec-line or de-cline; sus-pect or susp-ect; kin-dred or kind-red; lanc-et or lan-cet; mor-ning or morn-ing; hil-lock ox hill-ock; univers-ity or univer-sity; semin-ary or semi-nary; catas-trophe or cata-strophe.

II. What is the force of each of the following prefixes, and from what language does it come? Give a word in illustration :—with-, contra-, dia-, sub-, per-, sym-, arch-, un-, ab-.

12. Point out the prefixes in the following words and give their force:-extract, misuse, retrograde, antecedent, antipathy, outdo, besmear, accede, ignoble, immense.

13. What is the force of the -en in each of the following words?— gold-en, sweet-en, vix-en, childr-en, maid-en.

14. Give the force of the suffixes in these words:-black-ish, yeoman-ry, spin-ster, malt-ster, young-ster, doct-or, dar-ling, man-hood, god-head, free-dom, lanc-et, ring-let, shad-ow.

15. Give the Primary Derivatives from the following words :-heal, dig, weave, deep, lie, bath, love.

[By a Primary Derivative is here meant a word formed from another word as its root, by the addition of a sound not significant alone, or by the modification of an existing sound. Thus from strong is formed strength, where we have both addition and modification; from glass is formed glaze, where we have modification only. Now if, from the Primary Derivatives, fresh words are formed by similar processes, these words are called Secondary Derivatives. So, from the Primary Derivative strength we form strengthen; from glaze, glazier. Strengthen and glazier are Secondary Derivatives.]

CHAPTER XXII.

ANALYSIS OF SENTENCES AND PARSING.

219. Syntax deals with the combination of words in sentences, their government, agreement, and order.

In the course of our treatment of Etymology, many points belonging strictly to the province of Syntax have been already touched upon. The remaining chapters will contain a brief recapitulation of these points, with the addition of such details as are required to complete the information, on the subject of Syntax, which may fairly be looked for in an elementary text-book.

When, in dealing with Conjunctions, we explained the difference between a Compound and a Complex Sentence, our transition from Etymology to Syntax was complete. The student is recommended to read again the remarks on this difference which were made in Chapter XX., as they form a suitable introduction to the concluding section of this book. Syntax has to do with the relations of words to each other in sentences. To enable us intelligently to discuss these relations, it is essential that we should clearly understand the nature of a sentence, the elements of which it is composed, and the varieties of form which it

assumes.

220. We described a Sentence as a collection of words by which we say something about a thing.

This account of the nature of a sentence served our purpose at the time when we made use of it, but as a definition applicable to sentences generally it is clearly incomplete. A Sentence may express

(a) A Judgment; 'Birds fly,' 'The Bill will not pass,' 'Brutus killed Caesar.' In such cases we do 'say something about a thing,' or 'make assertions,' and sentences of this kind we took as the type of sentences in general. But in other sentences we give utterance to—

(b) A Command; 'Come,' 'Give it me.'

(c) A Question; 'Will he come?' 'Did you go?' (d) A Wish; 'Would he were here!' 'May you grow wiser!' 'God save the Queen!'

These four varieties of sentences may be called (1) Declaratory, (2) Imperative, (3) Interrogative, (4) Optative.

Shall we say then that a Sentence is a collection of words expressing a statement, command, question, or wish? This would be an enumeration of different kinds of sentences rather than a definition of a Sentence itself; just as it would be no definition of a triangle, if one were to say that a triangle is an equilateral, isosceles, or scalene figure. Perhaps a better as well as a shorter definition is this:

A Sentence is the complete expression of a thought in words.

In defining the Subject and the Predicate of a Sentence, for the sake of simplicity and conciseness we shall take cognisance only of sentences in which statements expressed :

are

The Subject of the sentence is the word which stands for the thing about which the assertion is made.

The Predicate is the word by which the assertion is made,