way of making bread is its chief recommendation; the dough may be baked at once, whereas the process of fermentation consumes several hours. As the constituents of the yeast-powder do not act upon each other in the absence of water, it may be mixed in the flour beforehand, and flour thus prepared is extensively sold in the United States under the name of "self-raising flour." The same process may be applied to a mixture of rye and wheat flour, and also to oat or corn meal.

FLOWER, or BLOSSOM, that part of a phanerogamous plant in which the organs of reproduction (stamens and pistils) are situated, and which consists essentially of a single group of these, generally surrounded by floral envelopes (the calyx and corolla). Both the organs of reproduction and the floral envelopes are metamorphosed leaves, and arise in successive whorls from a much shortened axis, called the thalamus (Gr., a nuptialbed), or torus (Lat., a couch). Flowers are sometimes closely attached to the stem or branch from which they grow, and are then said to be sessile (Lat., sitting); but sometimes there intervenes a flower-stalk or peduncle, either simple or branched. The whole assemblage of flowers of a plant is called its inflorescence (q.v.), and the different kinds of inflorescence, or modes in which the flowers are produced and grouped, are often as characteristic as the diversities in the flowers themselves, although the latter are in general more important with reference to botanical affinities.

In the very large natural order composita, many small flowers are congregated on a common receptacle, and surrounded with bracts in the form of an incolucre, as a single flower is surrounded by its calyx. The head of flowers is in this case popularly called a flower; and the individual flowers of which it is composed are by botanists styled florets. This term is also applied to the individual flowers in the spikelets of the grasses (q.v.), of which the glumes are a common involucre.

The order of the whorls in flowers is invariable: the calyx (q.v.) is always exterior to the corolla (q.v.); within the corolla are the stamens (q.v.), or male organs of reproduction; and in the center of all is the pistil (q.v.), the female organ of reproduction. An outer calyx, or whorl of metamorphosed leaves, exterior to the calyx, and usually smaller, is found in some flowers, as mallows, and is called the epicalyx. Within the corolla, there is sometimes an additional or supplementary corolla, called the corona (q.v.), coronet, or crown. When the calyx and corolla are not easily distinguishable, the term perianth (q.v.), or perigone, is employed, as in the lily, crocus, iris, and the greater number of endogenous plants, although even in these there are really two whorls closely united. In some flowers, there are several whorls of leaves forming one or each of the floral envelopes; and in like manner, some have several whorls of stamens, and sometimes there are several whorls of the carpels which form the pistil. In some flowers, certain whorls are entirely wanting; and thus not a few exogenous plants are destitute of the corolla, which is sometimes the case with plants-exceptional apetalous speciesvery nearly allied to others that have it. It is by a similar abortion of a whorl that flowers become unisexual. Both stamens and pistils are generally present in the same flower, which is called a hermaphrodite or perfect flower; but many flowers contain only the male organs of reproduction, and many contain only the female organs, and such flowers are described as unisexual, diclinous (q.v.), or imperfect; and respectively as male or staminiferous, and female or pistilliferous flowers. Male flowers are also called barren or sterile, and female flowers fertile, although their fertility depends on the communication of pollen from the staminiferous flowers. When both male and female flowers are produced on one plant, the species is said to be monacious (Gr., having one house); but when they are on separate plants, it is diacious (Gr., having two houses); those which produce male, female, and hermaphrodite flowers are called polygamous. Sometimes both stamens and pistils are wanting, and the flower is then said to be neuter or empty, as in the case of the florets of the ray in many composite flowers. Sometimes, on the contrary, both calyx and corolla are wanting, and then the flower is said to be naked or achlamydeous (Gr., without covering), as flowers having only one floral envelope are called monochlamydeous, and flowers having both calyx and corolla are called dichla mydeous. Achlamydeous flowers are often grouped in some peculiar manner, and protected by bracts or by a spathe.

Flowers are always regular in their rudimental state-whorls of elevated points or papilla; some of these, however, are not unfrequently abortive, whilst more frequently, some acquire a greater development than others of the same whorl, making the whorl and the flower irregular; and greater varieties of form are common in the metamorphosed leaves which compose the flower than in true leaves themselves. The internodes, or portions of the axis between the whorls, are sometimes also peculiarly developed into disk (q.v.), gynophore, etc. The different whorls often differ in their aestivation (q.v.). But a beautiful symmetry may generally be traced in the arrangement of the parts of flowers, the whorls consisting of the same number of parts, and the parts of each whorl being placed opposite to the spaces of the whorl exterior to it; and this symmetrical plan of the flower remains manifest even when there is abortion or extraordinary devel opment of particular parts. The number of parts in the pistil is, however, often smaller than in the exterior whorls; and sometimes particular parts appear to be divided, and so apparently multiplied, as the long stamens of the crucifera, each pair of which is to be

Flowers.

regarded as one stamen split into two, and has its place accordingly among the parts of the flower.

The development of flowers in most cases follows the complete formation of the stem-leaves, more rarely precedes or accompanies it. The unfolding of the parts of a flower is called its flowering or blossoming, and when their functions are performed, it fades; the floral envelopes, the stamens, and even the styles, sometimes falling off early, and some of them sometimes remaining in a withered state until the ripening of the fruit; the calyx not unfrequently undergoing such modifications as to convert it into a part of the fruit itself.

In the greater number of plants, flowering takes place, during the flowering season, indiscriminately, at all hours of the day; and the flowers once opened, remain open, even during night, till they fade. In many plants, however, a sleep of flowers takes place; they open and close with the returns of day and night. Thus, sunflowers open in the morning, and close at evening; whilst there are other flowers which open in the evening, and close in the morning. Others also open and close at certain hours of the day; thus the flowers of the common purslane open about 11 o'clock A.M., and close soon after midday; anthericum pomeridianum opens its flowers about 2 P.M., and closes them before night; the large fragrant blossoms of cereus grandiflorus open between 7 and 8 P.M., and its sleep commences soon after midnight. In a few plants, the sleeping and waking of the flowers are regulated by the conditions of the weather. The waking and sleeping of flowers either continues for several days in succession, as in some species of mesembryanthemum; or the brief life of the flower ends when it first sleeps, as in the tiger-flower.

The odors of flowers, extremely various, often delightful, and sometimes very offensive, are in some cases equally powerful as long as the flower is open; in others, they vary in strength at different times of the day. Some flowers, as those of hesperis tristis and pelargonium triste, although remaining open during the day, diffuse their fragrance only when night comes on. The oriental hyacinth, so commonly cultivated in windows, is at all times perceptibly fragrant, but fills the atmosphere of the apartment with its perfume about 11 o'clock at night.

The colors of the different parts of flowers, the variety and beauty of which render many of them so attractive, generally remain unchanged, but sometimes undergo changes during the life of the flower. The flowers of myosotis versicolor- a small species of forget-me-not, very common as a weed in gardens-are sulphur-yellow when they first open, and afterwards change to blue. The petals of cheiranthus mutabilis, when they first expand, are yellow, and afterwards pass to orange, red, and finally purple. In hydrangea hortensis, familiar as a window-plant, the flowers are at first green, then rose-color, purplish red intermixed with green, and finally, when about to fade, they are of a sickly green. Some flowers undergo remarkable changes of color during the day, as those of the common pink phlox, which, early in the morning, are light blue, and become bright pink as the day advances; and those of hibiscus variabilis, which are white in the morning, pink at noon, and bright red at sunset.

The colors and odors of flowers are subjects in the investigation of which physiologists have not yet been able to go far. The chemical products on which they immediately depend are partially known; but how the chemical changes are wrought, and what various purposes they all serve as to the plant itself, can scarcely be said to have even begun to be ascertained. Both colors and odors are more or less owing to the action of the sun's rays. They are also sometimes modified by soil; and diversities of color have been obtained in cultivated flowers by changing the soil in which they grow. A few flowers are edible, although none are of any importance on this account. Some, or parts of them, are used in dyeing; but notwithstanding the beauty and variety of the colors of flowers, a very small proportion of vegetable dye-stuffs is obtained from them; and a similar remark is applicable to their medicinal use. For dyeing and painting, the colors of flowers can seldom be obtained in considerable quantity, except at too great expense, and seldom of brilliancy at all corresponding with that which they exhibit in the flower itself. They are also in general fixed with great difficulty, some yellow colors being the only notable exceptions

Flowers being subservient to the reproduction of the species, are, in all not unfavor able circumstances, followed by fruit (q.v). This, of course, in monoecious and diocious plants, is the case only with the female flowers, the male flowers soon withering away when they have dispersed their pollen. See FECUNDATION and STAMEN. But even after the fecundation of the ovules, and when, in the language of gardeners, the fruit is set, unfavorable circumstances-such as excessive heat or cold, drought or moisture, want of due nutriment to the plant, or through excessive number of fruits set at once, to the individual fruit itself--often cause it to fall off early, long before it has attained its full size. See FRUIT.

FLOWER-DE-LUCE. SEE IRIS.

FLOWER-POTS are generally made of burnt clay, unglazed, tapering a little towards the bottom, and having the bottom perforated with one or more holes. Those of smallest size (thumb-pots) are only about 2 in. deep, and are used chiefly for seedlings to be soon again transplanted. For plants which require a pot of more than 12 in.

3

FLOWERS.-1. Meadow anemone (Pulsatilla pratensis). 2. Monkshood (Aconitum napellus). spectabilis. 7. Sun-dew (Dionaea muscipula). 8. Wood-sorrel (Oxalis acetosella). 9. Gum leek (Sempervivum Funkii). 13. Hydrangea (H. quercifolia). 14. Anise (Pimpinella anist (Tussilago farfara). 18. Cyclamen (C. Europæum). 19. Fox-glove (Digitalis purpurea). (Atropa belladonna). 23. Gentian (Gentiana pneumonanthe). 24. Oleander (Nerium o 28. Orchis maculata (anther and pollinium). 29. Platanthera bifolia. 30. Asparagus bloss

a).

3. Victoria regia. 4. Poppy (Papaver officinalis). 5. Wall-flower (Cheiranthus cheiri). 6. Dyaletra Gummy acacia (A. nilotica). 10. Dog-rose (R. canina). 11. Indian fig (Opuntia coccinellifera). 12. Houseanisum). 15. Bunch-berry (Cornus canadensis). 16. Honeysuckle (Lonicera caprifolium). 17. Colt's foot 20. Mullein (Verbascum thapsus). 21. Thorn-apple (Datura stramonium). 22. Deadly night-shade im oleander). 25. True jasmine (Jasminum officinale). 26. Laurel (Laurus nobilis). 27. Mezereon lossom magnified. 31. Meadow saffron (Colchicum autumnale). 32. Snow-drop (Galanthus nivalis).