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CHAPTER IV.
HISTORY OF THE PROGRESS OF GEOLOGY-continued.
Werner's Application of Geology to the Art of Mining-Excursive Character of his
Lectures-Enthusiasm of his Pupils-His Authority-His Theoretical Errors-
Desmarest's Map and Description of Auvergne-Controversy between the
Vulcanists and Neptunists-Intemperance of the Rival Sects-Hutton's Theory
of the Earth-His Discovery of Granite Veins-Originality of his Views-
Why opposed-Playfair's Illustrations-Influence of Voltaire's Writings on
Geology-Imputations cast on the Huttonians by Williams, Kirwan, and De
Luc-Smith's Map of England-Geological Society of London-Progress of the
Sciences in France-Growing Importance of the Study of Organic Remains
CHAPTER V.
PAGE 68
PREJUDICES WHICH HAVE RETARDED THE PROGRESS OF GEOLOGY.
Prepossessions in regard to the Duration of Past Time-Prejudices arising from our
peculiar Position as Inhabitants of the Land-Others occasioned by our not
seeing Subterranean Changes now in progress-All these Causes combine to
make the former Course of Nature appear different from the present-Objec-
tions to the Doctrine that Causes similar in Kind and Energy to those now
acting, have produced the former Changes of the Earth's Surface, considered
90
CHAPTER VI.
SUPPOSED INTENSITY OF AQUEOUS FORCES AT REMOTE PERIODS.
Intensity of Aqueous Causes-Slow Accumulation of Strata proved by Fossils-
Rate of Denudation can only keep pace with Deposition-Erratics and Action
of Ice-Deluges, and the Causes to which they are referred Supposed Univer-
sality of Ancient Deposits
106
CHAPTER VII.
ON THE SUPPOSED FORMER INTENSITY OF THE IGNEOUS FORCES.
Volcanic Action at successive Geological Periods-Plutonic Rocks of different
Ages-Gradual Development of Subterranean Movements-Faults-Doctrine
of the Sudden Upheaval of Parallel Mountain-chains-Objections to the Proof
of the Suddenness of the Upheaval, and the Contemporaneousness of Parallel
Chains-Trains of Active Volcanos not parallel-As Large Tracts of Land are
rising or sinking slowly, so Narrow Zones of Land may be pushed up
gradually to Great Heights-Bending of Strata by Lateral Pressure-Adequacy
of the Volcanic Power to effect this without Paroxysmal Convulsions
CHAPTER VIII.
DIFFERENCE IN TEXTURE OF THE OLDER AND NEWER ROCKS.
117
Consolidation of Fossiliferous Strata-some Deposits originally solid-Transition
and Slaty Texture-Crystalline Character of Plutonic and Metamorphic Rocks
-Theory of their Origin-Essentially Subterranean-No Proofs that they were
produced more abundantly at remote Periods .
140
CHAPTER IX.
THEORY OF THE PROGRESSIVE DEVELOPMENT OF ORGANIC LIFE
AT SUCCESSIVE GEOLOGICAL PERIODS.
Theory of the Progressive Development of Organic Life-Evidence in its Support
derived from Fossil Plants-Fossil Animals-Mollusca-Whether they have ad-
vanced in Grade since the Earliest Rocks were formed-High Antiquity of Ce-
phalopoda Slight Indications of Progress afforded by Fossil Fish-Advance and
Retrogradation of Fossil Reptiles-Land Animals of Remote Periods why rare
-Fossil Birds-Mammalia-Stonesfield Marsupials-Absence of Cetacea in Se-
condary Rocks-Successive Appearance of the great Sub-classes of Mammalia
of advancing Grade in Chronological Order-Modern Origin of Man-Introduc-
tion of Man, to what extent a Change in the System
CHAPTER X.
PAGE 146
FURTHER CONSIDERATION OF THE AGREEMENT OF THE ANCIENT AND
MODERN CAUSES OF CHANGE-VICISSITUDES IN CLIMATE.
Arguments derived from former Differences in Climate-The Reality of such
former Differences considered-Climate of the Ages of Bronze and of Stone-
Fossil Quadrupeds and Shells of the Drift-Temperature implied by the Re-
mains of the Mammoth and other Extinct Quadrupeds-Carcasses of the Ele-
phant and Rhinoceros preserved in the Frozen Mud of Siberia-Important
Bearing of the Condition of these Fossil Remains on the Theory of Climate-
Variation in the Temperature of Post-glacial Times-Organic and Inorganic
Proofs of Great Cold in the Glacial Epoch-Inter-glacial Periods of Dürnten
and Cromer-British Pliocene Strata, showing Transition from Warmer to
Colder Climate-The Signs of Warm Temperature afforded by Italian Pliocene
Strata-Warm Climate of Central Europe in Upper Miocene Times-Reptiles
and Quadrumana-Fossils of the Siwâlik Hills-Upper Miocene Strata of West
Indies-Warm Climate implied by Lower Miocene Fauna and Flora-Miocene
Forest Trees in High Arctic Latitudes-High Temperature of the Eocene Period
-Supposed Signs of Ice-action implied by Erratic Blocks of Upper Miocene
and Middle Eocene Conglomerates
CHAPTER XI.
FORMER VICISSITUDES IN CLIMATE-continued.
174
Warm Climate implied by the Fossils of the Chalk-Cretaceous Reptiles-How far
extinct Genera and Orders may enable us to infer the Temperature of Ancient
Climates—Evidence of Floating Ice in the Sea of the White Chalk of England
-Warm Climate of the Oolitic and Triassic Periods-Wide Range of the same
Fauna from South to North-Abundance and wide Range of Reptiles implies a
general Absence of severe Cold-The Non-existence of contemporary Mammalia
will not explain the Predominance of Reptiles in High Latitudes-Permian Fossils
-Supposed signs of Ice-action in the Permian Period-Uniformity of the Fossil
Flora over wide Areas-Melville Island Coal-plants-How far the Absence of
flowering Plants vitiates our Inferences as to ancient Climates-Whether the
Atmosphere was subcharged with Carbonic Acid in the Coal Period-Fossil
Shells and Corals of the Carboniferous Strata-Climate implied by the Reptiles
or Amphibia of the Coal-Devonian Period, and supposed Signs of Ice-action of
that Era considered-Climate of the Silurian Period-Concluding Remarks on
the Climates of the Tertiary, Secondary, and Primary Epochs
CHAPTER XII.
PAGE 212
VICISSITUDES IN CLIMATE CAUSED BY GEOGRAPHICAL CHANGES.
On the Causes of Vicissitudes in Climate-On the present Diffusion of Heat over
the Globe-Mean Annual Isothermal Lines-Dependence of the Mean Tempera-
ture on the relative Position of Land and Sea-Climate of South Georgia and
Tierra del Fuego-Cold of the Antarctic Region-Open Sea near the North Pole
-Effect of Currents in equalising the Temperature of High and Low Latitudes
-The present Proportion of Polar land abnormal-Succession of Geographical
Changes revealed to us by Geology-Map showing the Amount of European
Land which has been under Water since the Commencement of the Eocene
Period-Antiquity of the existing Continents-Changes in Geography which
preceded the Tertiary Epoch-Map showing the unequal Distribution of Land
and Water on the Globe-Former Geographical Changes which may have
caused the Fluctuations in Climate revealed to us by Geology-Ideal Map with
the Excess of Land removed from Polar to Tropical Regions-Great Depth of
the Sea as compared to the Mean Height of the Land, and its Connection with
the Slowness of Climatal Changes
CHAPTER XIII.
VICISSITUDES IN CLIMATE HOW FAR INFLUENCED BY
ASTRONOMICAL CHANGES.
233
The Precession of the Equinoxes, and Variations in the Excentricity of the Earth's
Orbit considered as affecting Climate-Under what Conditions Extreme Ex-
centricity may exaggerate Cold-Measurement of Heat-Temperature of Space
-Climates of Successive Phases of Precession-Variation in the Obliquity of
the Ecliptic-Radiation of Heat impeded by a covering of Snow-Quantity of
Polar Ice and its Influence in altering the Level of the Ocean-Migrations of
the Greenland Whale-Liquefaction and Evaporation of Snow-How far the
Dates of former Glacial Periods may be fixed by computing the Eras of Maxi-
mum Excentricity-Dates of the Neolithic and Paleolithic Eras--Of the Inten-
sity of Glacial Cold-Duration of the Glacial Period as compared to Successive
Tertiary, Secondary, and Primary Epochs-Supposed Variations in the Tempe-
rature of Space-Solar Magnetic Periods and Variable Splendour of the Stars-
Supposed gradual Diminution of the Earth's Primitive Heat-Supposed Change
in the Position of the Axis of the Earth's Crust
CHAPTER XIV.
UNIFORMITY IN THE SERIES OF PAST CHANGES IN THE
ANIMATE AND INANIMATE WORLD.
268
Supposed alternate Periods of Repose and Disorder-Observed Facts in which
this Doctrine has originated-These may be explained by supposing a uniform
and uninterrupted Series of Changes - Threefold Consideration of this Subject;
First, in reference to the Laws which govern the Formation of Fossiliferous
Strata, and the Shifting of the Areas of Sedimentary Deposition; Secondly, in
reference to the Living Creation, Extinction of Species, and Origin of New
Animals and Plants; Thirdly, in reference to the Changes produced in the
Earth's Crust by the Continuance of Subterranean Movements in certain Areas,
and their Transference after long Periods to new Areas-On the combined
Influence of all these Modes and Causes of Change in producing Breaks and
Chasms in the Chain of Records-Concluding Remarks on the Identity of the.
Ancient and Present System of Terrestrial Changes
PAGE 305
BOOK II.
CHANGES IN THE INORGANIC WORLD NOW IN PROGRESS.
CHAPTER XV.
AQUEOUS CAUSES.
Division of the Subject into Changes of the Organic and Inorganic World-Inor-
ganic Causes of Change divided into Aqueous and Igneous-Aqueous Causes
first considered-Fall of Rain-Recent Rain-prints in Mud-Earth-pyramids
formed by Rain in the Tyrol and Swiss Alps-Dwarf's Tower near Viesch-
Destroying and Transporting Power of Running Water-Newly formed Valleys
in Georgia-Sinuosities of Rivers-Two Streams when united do not occupy a
Bed of Double Surface-Inundations in Scotland-Floods caused by Landslips
in the White Mountains-Bursting of a Lake in Switzerland-Devastations
caused by the Anio at Tivoli-Excavations in the Lavas of Etna by Sicilian
Rivers-Gorge of the Simeto--Gradual Recession of the Cataract of Niagara
327
CHAPTER XVI.
TRANSPORTATION OF SOLID MATTER BY ICE.
Carrying Power of River-Ice-Rocks annually conveyed into the St. Lawrence by
its Tributaries-Ground-Ice; its Origin and Transporting Power-Glaciers--
Theory of their Downward Movement-Smoothed and Grooved Rocks-The
Moraine Unstratified-Terrace or Beach formed by a Glacier-Lake in Switzer-
land-Icebergs covered with Mud and Stones-Limits of Glaciers and Icebergs
-Their Effects on the Bottom when they run aground-Packing of Coast-Ice
-Boulders drifted by Ice on Coast of Labrador-Blocks moved by Ice in the
Baltic
363
CHAPTER XVII.
PHENOMENA OF SPRINGS.
Origin of Springs-Artesian Wells-Borings at Paris-Live Fish rising in the
Artesian Wells in the Sahara-Distinct Causes by which Mineral and Thermal
Waters may be raised to the Surface-Their Connection with Volcanic Agency
-Thermal Waters of Bath-Calcareous Springs-Travertin of the Elsa-Baths
of San Vignone and of San Filippo, near Radicofani-Spheroidal Structure in
Travertin-Lake of the Solfatara, near Rome-Travertin at Cascade of Tivoli-
Gypseous, Siliceous, and Ferruginous Springs-Brine Springs-Carbonated
Springs-Disintegration of Granite in Auvergne-Petroleum Springs-Pitch
Lake of Trinidad PAGE 387
CHAPTER XVIII.
REPRODUCTIVE EFFECTS OF RIVERS.
Lake Deltas-Growth of the Delta of the Upper Rhone in the Lake of Geneva-
Playfair on the Origin of Lake Basins-Computation of the Age of Deltas-
Recent Deposits in Lake Superior-Deltas of Inland Seas-Course of the Po-
Artificial Embankments of the Po and Adige-Delta of the Po, and other Rivers
entering the Adriatic-Rapid Conversion of the Gulf into Land-Mineral
Characters of the New Deposits-Marine Delta of the Rhone-Various Proofs
of its Increase-Stony Nature of its Deposits-Coast of Asia Minor-Delta of
the Nile-Chronological Computation of the Growth of the Nile Mud at
Memphis
416
CHAPTER XIX.
REPRODUCTIVE EFFECTS OF RIVERS- -continued.
Deltas formed under the Influence of Tides-Basin and Delta of the Mississippi
Alluvial Plain-River-Banks and Bluffs-Curves of the River-Natural Rafts
and Snags-Mud-Lumps near the Mouths and their probable Origin-New
Lakes, and Effects of Earthquakes-Antiquity of the Delta-Section in Artesian
Well at New Orleans-Delta of the Amazons-Delta of the Ganges and Brah-
mapootra-Head of the Delta and Sunderbunds-Islands formed and destroyed
-Crocodiles-Amount of Fluviatile Sediment in the Water-Artesian Boring
at Calcutta-Proofs of Subsidence-Age of the Delta-Convergence of Deltas-
Origin of existing Deltas not contemporaneous-Grouping of Strata and Stra-
tification in Deltas-Conglomerates-Constant Interchange of Land and Sea
440
CHAPTER XX.
DESTROYING AND TRANSPORTING EFFECTS OF TIDES AND CURRENTS.
Differences in the Rise of the Tides-Causes of Currents--Lagullas and Gulf
Currents-Velocity of Currents-Action of the Sea on the British Coast-Shet-
land Islands-Large Blocks removed-Isles reduced to Clusters of Rocks—
Orkney Isles-Waste of East Coast of Scotland-and East Coast of England—
Waste of the Cliffs of Holderness, Norfolk, and Suffolk-Eccles Church in 1839
and 1862-Sand-Dunes how far Chronometers-Silting up of Estuaries-
Yarmouth Estuary-Suffolk Coast-Dunwich-Essex Coast-Estuary of the
Thames-Goodwin Sands-Coast of Kent-Formation of the Straits of Dover-
South Coast of England-Sussex-Hants-Dorset-Portland-Origin of the
Chesil Bank-Torbay-St. Michael's Mount, Cornwall-Coast of Brittany 493